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Self-Perception Theory

Bem, Daryl J.·1972·Advances in Experimental Social Psychology

DOI 10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60024-6

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A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
Festinger, L. (1957) · doi:10.1515/9781503620766 · Cited by 24,241
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Bem D.J. An experimental analysis of beliefs and attitudes 1964 University Microfilms Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan) Ann Arbor, Mich. 588 No. 64–12
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Wolosin R.J. Self- and social perception and the attribution of internal states 1969 University Microfilms Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan) Ann Arbor, Mich. 276 No. 69–12

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“This is consistent with evidence that people use similar strategies when reasoning about their own traits and preferences (Bem, 1972; Gopnik, 1993; Nisbett & Wilson, 1977).”
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“In this way, people can develop preferences for " their " pizza shop that are caused by their actions, rather than act in ways that reveal their preferences (see also Bem 1972).”
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“The most prevalent explanation (Bem, 1972) states that individuals infer their personal attitudes and motivations after observing their own behavior.”
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Yoon, G., Li, C., Ji, Y. (., North, M., Hong, C., & Liu, J. (2018) · Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/00913367.2017.1405753 · Cited by 149
“Here we consider that commenting could exert an inﬂuence in shaping consumer behavior through this self-perception (Bem 1972).”
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“This interpretation is consistent with the principles of self-perception theory, which states that people can infer their attitudes about an object from their behavior toward it (Bem, 1972).”
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“According to self-perception theory, cognitive dissonance needs to be resolved by the individual [14].”
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“Similarly, on a more individual bottom-up level, Bem’s selfperception theory posits that attitudes are based on self-observed behaviours (Bem, 1967); this is particularly the case when the situation is weak or ambiguous (Bem, 1972).”
Background
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“The idea that individuals learn about themselves by observing their own choices, and conversely make decisions in a way designed to achieve or preserve favorable self-images, is quite prevalent in psychology (e.g., Bem (1972)).”
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“More critically, the simple act of expressing a counter-attitudinal view can shift one’s private attitude to be more similar to the expressed view, generating persistent attitude change (Bem 1972; Festinger 1957; Cooper 2007).”
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“The cue-accessibility interpretation of the feedback effect has been likened to Bem’s (1972) self-perception theory of attitudes and beliefs; to the extent that internal cues are weak, people infer their attitudes and beliefs by observing their own behavior and the context. Using this cue-accessibility framework, Well…”
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“In a highlighting dynamic, a particular goal-congruent choice is interpreted as a commitment to that goal, and the choice increases the goal’s priority over competing temptations (Aronson, 1997; Atkinson & Raynor, 1978; Bem, 1972; Feather, 1990; Festinger, 1957; Locke & Latham, 1990).”
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“The “discounting principle” (Kelley, 1973), the “overjustification hypothesis” (Bem, 1972; Kelley, 1967, 1973; deCharms, 1968) and “cognitive evaluation theory” (Deci, 1975; Deci & Ryan, 1980) have all proven useful for understanding the negative effects of extrinsic environmental constraints in…”
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“Moreover, the Self-Perception Theory by Bem (1972) supports this study.”
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“Nevertheless, in line with predictions of self-perception theory (Bem, 1972), both behavioral and neuroscience evidence suggest that although values predict later expressive behavior more than behavior predicts later values (Vecchione et al., 2019), behavior expression sometimes also leads to…”
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“Another theory involving the nature of self and social perception that is worth considering in the present context is Bem’s (1972) self-perception theory.”
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Toward a normative and comparative biocultural social psychology.
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“According to the ELM authors, other peripheral processes can include those described by balance theory (Heider, 1958) and self-perception theory (Bem, 1972).”
Background
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“Similarly, self-perception theory suggests that people might report having dietary attitudes that, while resembling motivations, may truly constitute inferences about their convictions that they derive from partaking in their eating behaviors (Bem, 1972).”
Background
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“We sometimes infer our attitudes from observation of our own behavior; our freely-chosen behavior provides diagnostic information regarding our likes and dislikes (Bem, 1972).”
Background
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“…associated with a tone of voice, a style of speech, and (how could it be otherwise?) a certain subjective experience’’ (Bourdieu, 1977, p. 87; see also Bem, 1972; Cacioppo, Priester, & Bernston, 1993; Chen & Bargh, 1999; James, 1890; Laird, 1974).16 A culture’s ideas become ‘‘em‐bodied’’ in…”
Background
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“These findings could reflect the fact that model-discrepant actions produce psychological inconsistency, which is resolved by shifting one s values, beliefs, and behavior away from prototypically avoidant models (cf. Bem, 1972; Festinger, 1957).”
Background
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Wilcox, K., & Laird, J. D. (2000) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1006/jrpe.1999.2281 · Cited by 121
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Greene, D. M., Sternberg, B. J., & Lepper, M. R. (1976) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.34.6.1219 · Cited by 121
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“The perception of choice and control appears to be fundamental to a heightened sense of self-actualization (Bem, 1972; Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Samdahl & Kleiber, 1989; Steele, 1988; Williams, 2002), which in turn sustains the integrity of personal identity.”
Background
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“This carries to a logical conclusion the basic idea in self-perception theory (Bem 1972), namely, that the process of inferring underlying beliefs and desires from external behaviour is the same irrespective of whether the inferences pertain to someone else or to ourselves.”
Background
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“This conceptualization is not only consistent with dual process models (14–16) but also with classic theories of personality, such as Bem’s Self-perception Theory (23), which holds that individuals learn or “know” who they are from observing their own behavior and the circumstances surrounding their behavior.”
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“In his original portrayal of selfperception processes, Bem (1972) did not suggest that people make all inferences about themselves as if they were outside observers but rather argued that such inferences are especially likely when internal cues indicating a particular psychological orientation are…”
Background
Self‐Representations in Immersive Virtual Environments 1
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“Furthermore, we can utilize the VRS to examine self-perception theory (Bem, 1972) and self-concept change, particularly in novel situations.”
Method
Identity negotiation in roommate relationships: The self as architect and consequence of social reality.
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It’s Too Pretty to Use! When and How Enhanced Product Aesthetics Discourage Usage and Lower Consumption Enjoyment
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“…consumer behavior has shown that the degree of effort expended—whether in time, physical labor, pain, or money—is directly associated with how positively people evaluate the outcome of that effort (Belk 1988; Bem 1972; Festinger 1957; Moreau, Bonney, and Herd 2011; Norton, Mochon, and Ariely 2012).”
Background
Nudging in education: from theory towards guidelines for successful implementation
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“Belonging intervention—Walton and Cohen (2011) Framing—Benhassine et al. (2015) Images of eyes—Bateson et al.”
Influential
Understanding People's Perceptions of Relationships Is Crucial to Understanding their Emotional Lives
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“Helping” Versus “Being a Helper”: Invoking the Self to Increase Helping in Young Children
Bryan, C. J., Master, A., & Walton, G. M. (2014) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12244 · Cited by 118
“One important component of how people evaluate both themselves and others involves behavior (e.g., Bem, 1972).”
Habit and Identity: Behavioral, Cognitive, Affective, and Motivational Facets of an Integrated Self
Verplanken, B., & Sui, J. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01504 · Cited by 123
“Another path to a habit-identity relation is through self-perception (e.g., Bem, 1972).”
Background
Longitudinal tests of the theory of planned behaviour: A meta-analysis
Hagger, M. S., & Hamilton, K. (2023) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463283.2023.2225897 · Cited by 165
From repetition to conviction: Attitude accessibility as a determinant of attitude certainty
Holland, R. W., Verplanken, B., & van Knippenberg, A. (2003) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0022-1031(03)00038-6 · Cited by 118
Relational Schemas as a Source of If–Then Self-Inference Procedures
Baldwin, M. W. (1997) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/1089-2680.1.4.326 · Cited by 118
“(Bem, 1972), for example, examines factors that”
Reward contingencies and the development of children's skills and self-efficacy.
Schunk, D. H. (1983) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.75.4.511 · Cited by 118
“Schunk, D. H. (1983). Reward contingencies and the development of children's skills and self-efficacy.”
Background
Physiological and Cognitive Processes in the Regulation of Anxiety
Borkovec, T. (1976) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-2568-0_7 · Cited by 129
Less is more: is a green demarketing strategy sustainable?
Soule, C. A. A., & Reich, B. J. (2015) · Journal of Marketing Management · doi:10.1080/0267257x.2015.1059874 · Cited by 117
“Specifically, in accordance with self-perception theory (Bem, 1972), consumers tend to make post hoc inferences about their own attitudes based on their past behaviour, thus inferring that habitual purchase of a brand must be due to personal preferences and favourable brand attributes.”
Background
Contextualising over-engagement in work: Towards a more global understanding of workaholism as an addiction
Griffiths, M. D., & Karanika‐Murray, M. (2012) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/jba.1.2012.002 · Cited by 117
“…identification) referents, as a central aspect of the self is well supported by psychological theory (e.g. social identity, Ashforth & Mael, 1989; self-perception theory, Bem, 1972; and social exchange, van Knippenberg et al., 2007) and can help to understand specific work behaviours.”
Background
Beneficiary or Benefactor
Grant, A. M., & Dutton, J. E. (2012) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797612439424 · Cited by 129
“According to self-perception theory (Bem, 1972), people often infer their attitudes and identities by observing their own behaviors.”
Background
Moral licensing, moral cleansing and pro-environmental behaviour: The moderating role of pro-environmental attitudes
Gholamzadehmir, M., SPARKS, P. B., & Farsides, T. (2019) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2019.101334 · Cited by 135
“Various psychological theories (e.g., self-perception theory [Bem, 1973 ], cognitive dissonance theory [Festinger, 1962] and goal theory [Fishbach & Dhar, 2005]) support and explain positive spillover.”
Background
Employee creativity formation: The roles of knowledge seeking, knowledge contributing and flow experience in Web 2.0 virtual communities
Yan, Y., Davison, R. M., & Mo, C. (2013) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2013.03.007 · Cited by 118
“Self-perception theory (Bem, 1972) is applied in this study to explore the impact of knowledge sharing behavior on flow experience.”
BackgroundInfluential
Expression after suppression: A motivational explanation of postsuppressional rebound.
Liberman, N., & Förster, J. (2000) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.79.2.190 · Cited by 117
On Inducing Compliance with Requests
Reingen, P. H. (1978) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/208720 · Cited by 117
Early adolescent marijuana use: risks for the transition to young adulthood
Brook, J. S., ADAMS, R. E., Balka, E. B., & JOHNSON, E. (2002) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291701004809 · Cited by 117
“This relationship between early marijuana use and later attitudes seems consistent with Bem’s self-perception theory (Bem, 1978).”
Result
Effects of initial request size and timing of a second request on compliance: The foot in the door and the door in the face.
Cann, A., Sherman, S. J., & Elkes, R. (1975) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.32.5.774 · Cited by 117
An empathy‐humility‐commitment model of forgiveness applied within family dyads
Worthington, J. (1998) · Journal of Family Therapy · doi:10.1111/1467-6427.00068 · Cited by 274

Authors: Bem, D. J.
Affiliations: Stanford University (US)
Corresponding author: Bem, Daryl J.
Venue: Advances in Experimental Social Psychology
Publisher: Elsevier
Published: 1972
Pages: 1-62
ISSN: 0065-2601 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60024-6
OpenAlex: W1748197048
Cited by: 5,241
References: 93
Citations by year: 2026: 182 · 2025: 158 · 2024: 176 · 2023: 191 · 2022: 149 · 2021: 206 · 2020: 237 · 2019: 203 · 2018: 202 · 2017: 159 · 2016: 181 · 2015: 157 · 2014: 186 · 2013: 196 · 2012: 164
FWCI: 600.16
Type: book chapter
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Advances in experimental social psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
Keywords: self-perception theory, self-attribution, cognitive dissonance, interpersonal perception, functional analysis

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