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Self-Perception Theory

Bem, Daryl J.·1972·Advances in Experimental Social Psychology

DOI 10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60024-6

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A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
Festinger, L. (1957) · doi:10.1515/9781503620766 · Cited by 24,241
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Bem, D. J. (1967) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0024835 · Cited by 2,959
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Festinger, L., & Carlsmith, J. M. (1959) · The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0041593 · Cited by 2,945

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Research works printed but not linked: 4

Bem D.J. An experimental analysis of beliefs and attitudes 1964 University Microfilms Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan) Ann Arbor, Mich. 588 No. 64–12
Brown, 1965, A behavioral analysis of masochism, Journal of Experimental Research in Personality, 5, 65
Storms, M. D. Video tape and the attribution process: Changing actors' and observers' points of view. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Yale University, 1971.
Wolosin R.J. Self- and social perception and the attribution of internal states 1969 University Microfilms Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan) Ann Arbor, Mich. 276 No. 69–12

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“Similarly, Bem's (1972) self-perception theory suggests that people will attribute pro-environmental attitudes to themselves if they realize that they engaged in sustainable behaviors without tangible external reasons.”
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“…by several theories (e.g., cognitive evaluation theory: Deci & Ryan, 1985; overjustification hypothesis and self-perception theory: Lepper, 1981, Bem, 1972; social cognitive theory: Bandura, 1986) and is empirically well documented (e.g., Boone & Cummings, 1981; Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999;…”
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“Then, if people seek to adhere to their conception of themselves, as self-perception theory maintains (Bern, 1972), this relatively favorable self-schema could promote prosocial conduct (see Kraut, 1973).”
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The deliberate control of emotional experience through control of expressions
Duclos, S. E., & Laird, J. D. (2001) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930126057 · Cited by 113
“However, we prefer self-perception theory (Bem, 1972; Ryle, 1949) for reasons described elsewhere (e.g., Laird & Bresler, 1992) and will use that theoretical frame.”
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“Bem (1972) also argued that the calculation of rewards and costs often occur on a post hoc basis and that the actors (partners) may not know their prevailing profit status until they reflect back about previous behaviors.”
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I believe therefore I care
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The deliberate control of emotional experience through control of expressions
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“The self-perception theory posits that individuals can rationalize their actions and make an effort to diminish the cognitive dissonance caused by conflicting attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors (Bem, 1972).”
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“Similarly, Bem’s (1972) self-perception theory states that individuals come to know their own internal states at least in part by inferring them from observations of their own overt behavior and/or the circumstances in which this behavior occurs. To the extent that internal cues to accuracy are weak, ambiguous or unin…”
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“Self Perception Theory (Bem, 1972) helps to understand these findings.”
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Personality and Social Structure
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“The model builds on the psychology of self-perception, which has long recognized that the individual can take the perspective of an outside observer and learn about herself by reflecting on her own actions (Bem (1972)).”
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“As Bem (1972) points out, however, individuals only use their behavior as a basis for inferring their attitudes if they perceive that they have engaged in this behavior voluntarily.”
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“People can make inferences about their identity based on past behavior, which may subsequently lead people to act in accordance with that self-perception (Bem, 1972).”
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“Long-standing traditions in social psychology (e.g. Baumeister, 1999; Bem, 1972) and more recent theorizing in economics (e.”
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“might they reconstruct it? In his self-perception theory, Bern (1972) argued that people infer attitudes from their own behaviors.”
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Correlational bias in observer ratings.
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“As individuals perceive themselves engaging in trust behaviors, their positive expectations of coworkers will be strengthened (Bem, 1972) and their trust levels will increase in a self-reinforcing spiral. This potential trust trajectory is in line with the proposed feedback loop in Mayer and colleagues’ (1995) model o…”
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Moral cleansing
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“A second possibility is that we do not have special access to our own mental states; we must infer our own thoughts just as we infer the thoughts of others based on external, observable behavior (Bem, 1972).”
Background
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“Bem's selfperception theory also describes the drive to consistency, but stresses that individuals derive their cognitions, beliefs, and attitudes from their own prior overt behavior (Bem, 1972).”
Background
The psychologically rich life questionnaire
Oishi, S., Choi, H. P., Buttrick, N. R., Heintzelman, S. J., Kushlev, K., Westgate, E. C., Tucker, J., Ebersole, C. R., Axt, J. R., Gilbert, E. A., et al. (2019) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2019.06.010 · Cited by 111
“However, all four of our studies were correlational, and thus open to an alternative explanation: namely, that individuals who believe they are leading a psychologically rich life may, over time, begin to view themselves as open to new experiences, especially if they frequently observe themselves engaged in such activ…”
Background
Ethical Leadership and Ethical Voice: The Mediating Mechanisms of Value Internalization and Integrity Identity
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“This is consistent with a self-perception perspective (Bem, 1972), which proposes that individuals come to know their own beliefs from observing their own voluntary behaviors and/or the contexts in which their own behaviors occur.”
Background
Behavior-based safety in industry: Realizing the large-scale potential of psychology to promote human welfare
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SOCIAL‐DEMOGRAPHIC ATTITUDES AND VIOLENCE*
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Regulating affect interpersonally: When low esteem leads to greater enhancement.
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Associations between visual attention, implicit and explicit attitude and behaviour for physical activity
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“An important influence on attitude formation and reinforcement is direct experience with the attitude object (e.g. Bem, 1972; Fazio, Eiser, & Shook, 2004; Fazio & Zanna, 1981; Zajonc, 1968).”
Background
Facing one’s implicit biases: From awareness to acknowledgment.
(2018) · doi:10.1037/pspi0000155 · Cited by 107
“that people are generally unable to report their implicit biases, the notion of self-perception (Bem, 1972) suggests that merely completing an IAT may increase”
Background
Passion for a Cause, Passion for a Creed: On Ideological Passion, Identity Threat, and Extremism
Rip, B., Vallerand, R. J., & Lafrenière, M. K. (2011) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00743.x · Cited by 119
“That is, reflecting on one’s peaceful or extremist activist behavior may lead an ideologically inclined person to further internalize a particular (harmonious or obsessive) ideologically passionate orientation (self-perception theory; Bem, 1972).”
Background
A research tool for measuring perceptions of clinical decision making
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Looking and loving: The effects of mutual gaze on feelings of romantic love
Kellerman, J. M., Lewis, J. E., & Laird, J. D. (1989) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/0092-6566(89)90020-2 · Cited by 111
“In this self-perception view, self-knowledge and feelings arise from the observation and interpretation of actions and the contexts in which these actions occur (Bern, 1967, 1972; Ryle, 1949).”
Background
Catastrophe theory in social psychology: Some applications to attitudes and social behavior
Flay, B. R. (1978) · Systems Research and Behavioral Science · doi:10.1002/bs.3830230404 · Cited by 107
The American Perception of Class
Vanneman, R. D., & Cannon, L. W. (2018) · Temple University Press eBooks · doi:10.2307/j.ctv941wv0 · Cited by 107
Interaction of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: Some methodological notes.
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Multiple Roles for Affect in Persuasion
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Extensional versus Intuitive Reasoning
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. J. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.003 · Cited by 111
Self‐Determination and Empowerment: A Feminist Standpoint Analysis of Talk about Disability
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“A self is socially constructed—all of us infer and revise our sense of who we are and who we can and should be through our daily lives, particularly in social interaction (Bem, 1972; Blumstein, 1991; Goffman, 1963).”
Background
Self-Perception Based Strategies for Stimulating Energy Conservation
Allen, C. T. (1982) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/208878 · Cited by 106
Resting respiratory sinus arrhythmia buffers against rejection sensitivity via emotion control
Gyurak, A., & Ayduk, Ö. (2008) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/1528-3542.8.4.458 · Cited by 106
“havior (Bem, 1972), it is also plausible for hostile behavior to mediate the effect of RS and RSA interaction on emotion control.”
Being What You Say: The Effect of Essentialist Linguistic Labels on Preferences
Walton, G. M., & Banaji, M. R. (2004) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.22.2.193.35463 · Cited by 106
A review of research on Schachter's theory of emotion and the misattribution of Arousal
Cotton, J. L. (1981) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420110403 · Cited by 114
Social Movement Participation over Time: An Ego-Network Approach to Micro-Mobilization
Tindall, D. B. (2004) · Sociological Focus · doi:10.1080/00380237.2004.10571240 · Cited by 105
Monetary or environmental appeals for saving electricity? –Potentials for spillover on low carbon policy acceptability
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The interplay among environmental attitudes, pro-environmental behavior, social identity, and pro-environmental institutional climate. A longitudinal study
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Influence of Expectation Confirmation, Network Externalities, and Flow on Use of Mobile Shopping Apps
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“Self-perception theory posits that individuals constantly reassess their perceptions (initial expectations) about their behavior as and when they acquire new information (Bem, 1972).”
Background
A new conceptualization of union commitment: Development and test of an integrated theory
Sverke, M., & Kuruvilla, S. (1995) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.4030160603 · Cited by 105
Invited article: A parallel process model of nonverbal communication
Patterson, M. L. (1995) · Journal of Nonverbal Behavior · doi:10.1007/bf02173410 · Cited by 108
"The part of me that you bring out": Ideal similarity and the Michelangelo phenomenon.
Rusbult, C. E., Kumashiro, M., Kubacka, K. E., & Finkel, E. J. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0014016 · Cited by 107
“Models of self-concept, self-esteem, and self-regulation have tended to utilize intrapersonal explanatory models, focusing on individual-level cognition, affect, and motivation (e.g., Bem, 1972; Carver & Scheier, 1998; Steele, 1988).”
Method
Self‐attention and self‐report: The “veridicality” hypothesis
Gibbons, F. X. (1983) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1983.tb00343.x · Cited by 105
“This particular problem was examined by Bem and Allen (1974) in a provocative and widely cited paper in which they presented an argument in favor of an idiographic approach to the study of behavioral consistency.”
Background
Examination of cognitive absorption influencing the intention to use a virtual community
Lin, H.-F. (2009) · Behaviour & Information Technology · doi:10.1080/01449290701662169 · Cited by 102
“The relationship between cognitive absorption and perceived usefulness derives from the self-perception theory (Bem 1972), which argues that individuals will seek to rationalise their actions and thus reduce cognitive dissonance.”
Background
Is Choice-Induced Preference Change Long Lasting?
Sharot, T., Fleming, S. M., Yu, X., Koster, R., & Dolan, R. J. (2012) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797612438733 · Cited by 109
“The inclusion of this task made the control condition analogous to the “rate rate choose” condition used by Chen and Risen (2010). Because participants in the control condition had not been responsible for the first set of choices during the computer-choice trials, their final choices provide information about their t…”
BackgroundMethod
Putting Your Money Where Your Mouth Is: An Experimental Test of Pro-Environmental Spillover From Reducing Meat Consumption to Monetary Donations
Carrico, A. R., Raimi, K. T., Truelove, H. B., & Eby, B. (2017) · Environment and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0013916517713067 · Cited by 115
“Self-perception theory (Bem, 1972) argues that we at least partially infer information about our attitudes by”
Background
Gender Differences in the Effects of Extrinsic Motivation on Creativity*
Baer, J. (1998) · The Journal of Creative Behavior · doi:10.1002/j.2162-6057.1998.tb00804.x · Cited by 104
How Endowed versus Earned Progress Affects Consumer Goal Commitment and Motivation
Zhang, Y., & Huang, S. (2010) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/655417 · Cited by 106
Self-generated persuasion: Effects of the target and direction of arguments.
Briñol, P., McCaslin, M. J., & Petty, R. E. (2012) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0027231 · Cited by 114
“Finally, self-perception theory (Bem, 1972) would suggest that people might infer their attitude from the position they have to generate arguments to support.”
Background
Is There Method in Our Madness? Ways of Assessing Cognition in International Relations
Young, M. D., & Schafer, M. (1998) · Mershon International Studies Review · doi:10.2307/254444 · Cited by 103
Death Contemplation, Growth, and Defense: Converging Evidence of Dual-Existential Systems?
Cozzolino, P. J. (2006) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/10478400701366944 · Cited by 118
“Moreover, there is evidence that individuals make sense of themselves by relying on many of the same processes used to make sense of others (e.g., Bem, 1972).”
Background
On the neglect of volition in consumer research: A critique and proposal
Bagozzi, R. P. (1993) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.4220100305 · Cited by 106
Exaggerated, mispredicted, and misplaced: When “it's the thought that counts” in gift exchanges.
Yan, Z., & Epley, N. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/a0029223 · Cited by 105
Nature, decay, and spiraling of the effects of fear-inducing arguments and HIV counseling and testing: A meta-analysis of the short- and long-term outcomes of HIV-prevention interventions.
Earl, A., & Albarracín, D. (2007) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/0278-6133.26.4.496 · Cited by 136
“…HIV counseling and testing sessions successfully increase condom use, condom use may become habitual (Ouellette & Wood, 1998), the decision to use condoms may be reinforced (Bem, 1965, 1972; see more recently Albarracı́n & Wyer, 2001), and greater environmental rewards may be produced (Baum, 1994).”
Background
Understanding the Interplay Among Regulatory Self-Efficacy, Moral Disengagement, and Academic Cheating Behaviour During Vocational Education: A Three-Wave Study
Fida, R., Tramontano, C., Paciello, M., Ghezzi, V., & Barbaranelli, C. (2018) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-016-3373-6 · Cited by 101
Clever hands: Uncontrolled intelligence in facilitated communication.
Wegner, D. M., Fuller, V. A., & Sparrow, B. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.1.5 · Cited by 99
“Rather, the determination of authorship is an add-on, a judgment reached through the perception of self and situation rather than through some privileged understanding that arises from the conscious causation of the action (cf. Bem, 1972; Nisbett & Wilson, 1977).”
Background
Selfie Posting on Social Networking Sites and Female Adolescents’ Self-Objectification: The Moderating Role of Imaginary Audience Ideation
Zheng, D., Ni, X.-L., & Luo, Y.-J. (2019) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-018-0937-1 · Cited by 98
Examining the use of status quo bias perspective in IS research: need for re‐conceptualizing and incorporating biases
Lee, K., & Joshi, K. (2017) · Information Systems Journal · doi:10.1111/isj.12118 · Cited by 94
“& Kahneman, 1974), cognitive dissonance theory (Akerlof & Dickens, 1982) and self-perception theory (Bem, 1972).”
Reinforcement effects on intrinsic interest: Undermining the overjustification hypothesis
Feingold, B. D., & Mahoney, M. J. (1975) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(75)80111-0 · Cited by 116
The Positive Consequences of Pain: A Biopsychosocial Approach
Bastian, B., Jetten, J., Hornsey, M. J., & Leknes, S. (2014) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868314527831 · Cited by 91
“Enduring pain communicates certain qualities about oneself, and these qualities reflect the meaning and purpose given to pain (Morris, 1991; Schneider, 2009; cf. Bem, 1972).”
Background
Political polarization projection: Social projection of partisan attitude extremity and attitudinal processes.
Van Boven, L., Judd, C. M., & Sherman, D. K. (2012) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0028145 · Cited by 159

Authors: Bem, D. J.
Affiliations: Stanford University (US)
Corresponding author: Bem, Daryl J.
Venue: Advances in Experimental Social Psychology
Publisher: Elsevier
Published: 1972
Pages: 1-62
ISSN: 0065-2601 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60024-6
OpenAlex: W1748197048
Cited by: 5,241
References: 93
Citations by year: 2026: 182 · 2025: 158 · 2024: 176 · 2023: 191 · 2022: 149 · 2021: 206 · 2020: 237 · 2019: 203 · 2018: 202 · 2017: 159 · 2016: 181 · 2015: 157 · 2014: 186 · 2013: 196 · 2012: 164
FWCI: 600.16
Type: book chapter
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Advances in experimental social psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
Keywords: self-perception theory, self-attribution, cognitive dissonance, interpersonal perception, functional analysis

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