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Self-Perception Theory

Bem, Daryl J.·1972·Advances in Experimental Social Psychology

DOI 10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60024-6

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A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
Festinger, L. (1957) · doi:10.1515/9781503620766 · Cited by 24,241
A theory of social comparison processes
Festinger, L. (1954) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/001872675400700202 · Cited by 20,926
Cognitive, social, and physiological determinants of emotional state.
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Symonds, P. M. (1954) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0051901 · Cited by 4,902
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Deci, E. L. (1971) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0030644 · Cited by 4,170
Untitled work
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Attribution: Perceiving the Causes of Behavior
JONES, E. E. (1987) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 3,760
Attitudes and cognitive organization
Heider, F. (1946) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980.1946.9917275 · Cited by 3,672
Self-perception: An alternative interpretation of cognitive dissonance phenomena.
Bem, D. J. (1967) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0024835 · Cited by 2,959
Self-citation
Cognitive consequences of forced compliance.
Festinger, L., & Carlsmith, J. M. (1959) · The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0041593 · Cited by 2,945

Show all 93 references

Research works printed but not linked: 4

Bem D.J. An experimental analysis of beliefs and attitudes 1964 University Microfilms Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan) Ann Arbor, Mich. 588 No. 64–12
Brown, 1965, A behavioral analysis of masochism, Journal of Experimental Research in Personality, 5, 65
Storms, M. D. Video tape and the attribution process: Changing actors' and observers' points of view. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Yale University, 1971.
Wolosin R.J. Self- and social perception and the attribution of internal states 1969 University Microfilms Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan) Ann Arbor, Mich. 276 No. 69–12

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“Also, behavioral consistency is predicted by manywell-established psychological theories, such as cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957), Heider’s balance theory (1958), and selfperception (Bem, 1972).”
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“…of intentions and behavior (Ajzen, 1991), these results are more in line with selfperception theory, which argues that “individuals come to ‘know’ their own attitudes, emotions, and other internal states partially by inferring them from observations of their own overt behavior” (Bem, 1972).”
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“They then follow an inferential process similar to how one learns about one’s attitudes (Atkinson, 1964; Atkinson & Raynor, 1978; Bem, 1972; Cialdini, Trost, & Newsom, 1995; Feather, 1990).”
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“On the basis of selfperception theory (Bem 1972; Eagly and Chaiken 1993), we argued that respondents used frequent past behavior to form commitment to the attitude object.”
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“More broadly, it offers an additional demonstration of how interpretation of our past behavior can alter the way we view ourselves and influence our future attitudes and behaviors (Albarracín & McNatt, 2005; Bem, 1972; Burger & Caldwell, 2003; Cornelissen et al., 2007; 2008).”
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Self‐focused attention and self‐report validity1
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“Such a self-consistency effect is closely related to the concept of identity because individuals often define themselves through their past behavior (Bem 1972).”
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“people are clueless, disingenuous, or both when it comes to judging and reporting the self, as some have argued (Bem, 1972; Nisbett & Wilson, 1977), can we ever know whether people are capable of accurate selfknowledge? Some psychologists adopt an intermediate position, arguing that certain psychological processes”
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“More importantly, however, self-perception theory (Bem, 1972) assumes that participants use their behavior as a source of information to infer their own attitudes with the constraint that the behavior should be at least ‘‘.”
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“Self-perception effects occur when a person infers his or her attitudes by consciously observing or recalling his or her past behaviors (Bem, 1972).”
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“Self-perception theory postulates that self-effects occur because people derive particular self-concepts from prior behavior (Bem, 1972).”
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“…more, perhaps bigger and more difficult thing, including goal theory (Dhar and Simonson, 1999; Glasman and Albarracı´n, 2006; Knussen et al., 2004), self-perception theory (Bem, 1972), cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957; Thøgersen, 2004), and various learning theories (Nigg et al., 1999).”
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“The results of Experiment 2 are open to an alternative explanation based on theories of cognitive consistency (Bem, 1972; Festinger, 1957).”
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“Consistent with this idea, some theories propose that attitudes are postdispositions that develop in response to situations (Bem, 1972; Kleinke, 1978).”
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“The same considerations apply to a self-perception interpretation according to which people infer their evaluation from observations of their own behavior and the circumstances (i.e., the presence of external justification) in which they occur (Bem, 1972; Fazio, Zanna, & Cooper, 1977).”
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“Both cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957) and self-perception theory (Bem, 1972) predict a bidirectional relationship between identity and subjective value such that actions/decisions/beliefs that are valued highly enough would eventually come to be part of one’s identity, and that aspects of one’s identity w…”
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Grin and Bear It
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“For example, self-perception theory states that acting as though one feels a certain way will lead to that feeling (Bem, 1972; Laird, 1974). Especially relevant to facial-expression research is the related facial-feedback hypothesis, which states that activating facial muscles leads to the psychological experience of…”
BackgroundInfluential
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“We did this by drawing on self-perception theory (Bem, 1972), which postulates that “individuals come to ‘know’ their own attitudes, emotions, and other internal states partially by inferring them from observations of their own overt behavior” (Bem, 1972, p. 2).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
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“According to self-perception theory (Bem, 1967, 1972), people infer their attitudes and dispositions by observing their own behaviour.”
Background
Pro-environmental habits: An underexplored research agenda in sustainability science
Linder, N., Giusti, M., Samuelsson, K., & Barthel, S. (2021) · AMBIO · doi:10.1007/s13280-021-01619-6 · Cited by 210
“This aligns with self-perception theory that argues that we sometimes determine our attitudes and preferences by interpreting our actions (Bem 1972).”
Background
An Identity-Based Motivation Framework for Self-Regulation
Oyserman, D., Lewis, N. A., Yan, V. X., Fisher, O., O’Donnell, S. C., & Horowitz, E. (2017) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2017.1337406 · Cited by 165
“This means that the identity-to-action link is bidirectional: Situational affordances and constraints that influence what people do should also influence how they see themselves (e.g., Bem, 1972).”
Background
The damaging effect of confirming feedback on the relation between eyewitness certainty and identification accuracy.
Bradfield, A. L., Wells, G. L., & Olson, E. A. (2002) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.87.1.112 · Cited by 161
WebCT – The quasimoderating effect of perceived affective quality on an extending Technology Acceptance Model
Sánchez‐Franco, M. J. (2009) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.07.005 · Cited by 162
“Bem, 1972; Sánchez-Franco & Roldan, 2005).”
The experience of secrecy.
Slepian, M. L., Chun, J. S., & Mason, M. F. (2017) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspa0000085 · Cited by 170
“Thus, intentions to withhold may occasionally emerge through a self-perception process (Bem, 1972) after an initial act of unintentional concealment.”
Background
Agreement among teacher, peer, and self-ratings of children's aggression, withdrawal, and likability
Ledingham, J. E., Younger, A. J., Schwartzman, A. E., & Bergeron, G. (1982) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/bf00912327 · Cited by 161
Responses to Other-Imposed Pro-Black Pressure: Acceptance or Backlash?
Plant, E. A., & Devine, P. G. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.2001.1478 · Cited by 156
Towards researching the ''opportunistic entrepreneur'': A social constructionist approach and research agenda
Chell, E. (2000) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/135943200398067 · Cited by 166
“Moreover, observation of behaviour defines the nature of the self to the individual, and also to others (Bem, 1967, 1972).”
Background
Self-Signaling and the Costs and Benefits of Temptation in Consumer Choice
Dhar, R., & Wertenbroch, K. (2012) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1509/jmr.10.0490 · Cited by 163
Shifting closeness: Interpersonal effects of personal goal progress.
Fitzsimons, G. M., & Fishbach, A. (2010) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0018581 · Cited by 166
“When individuals infer from successful pursuit that the value they assign to this goal is higher (Atkinson, 1964; Bem, 1972; Feather, 1990) or that they are highly capable of successfully pursuing this goal (Bandura, 1986), they infer goal commitment.”
Background
Availability and interference in predictive judgment.
Hoch, S. J. (1984) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.10.4.649 · Cited by 160
The adoption of sustainable innovations: The role of instrumental, environmental, and symbolic attributes for earlier and later adopters
Noppers, E. H., Keizer, K., Bočkarjova, M., & Steg, L. (2015) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2015.09.002 · Cited by 159
“…theory: when using sustainable innovations is somewhat costly because of, for example, instrumental drawbacks, the use of sustainable innovations is more likely to be attributed to the identity of the user and less likely to be attributed to situational factors (Bem, 1972; Jones & Davis, 1965).”
Background
Ostracism and Ego Depletion: The Strains of Silence
Ciarocco, N. J., Sommer, K. L., & Baumeister, R. F. (2001) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167201279008 · Cited by 159
Eco-Guilt Motivates Eco-Friendly Behavior
Mallett, R. K. (2012) · Ecopsychology · doi:10.1089/eco.2012.0031 · Cited by 159
“If eco-guilt encourages people to behave in eco-friendly ways that do not appear to be constrained by the situation (Bem, 1972), people may eventually begin to infer their behavior reflects their underlying attitudes.”
The Patient Satisfaction Process: Moving Toward a Comprehensive Model
Strasser, S., Aharony, L., & Greenberger, D. B. (1993) · Medical Care Review · doi:10.1177/107755879305000205 · Cited by 160
Choice Construction versus Preference Construction: The Instability of Preferences Learned in Context
Amir, O., & Levav, J. (2008) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1509/jmkr.45.2.145 · Cited by 158

Authors: Bem, D. J.
Affiliations: Stanford University (US)
Corresponding author: Bem, Daryl J.
Venue: Advances in Experimental Social Psychology
Publisher: Elsevier
Published: 1972
Pages: 1-62
ISSN: 0065-2601 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60024-6
OpenAlex: W1748197048
Cited by: 5,241
References: 93
Citations by year: 2026: 182 · 2025: 158 · 2024: 176 · 2023: 191 · 2022: 149 · 2021: 206 · 2020: 237 · 2019: 203 · 2018: 202 · 2017: 159 · 2016: 181 · 2015: 157 · 2014: 186 · 2013: 196 · 2012: 164
FWCI: 600.16
Type: book chapter
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Advances in experimental social psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
Keywords: self-perception theory, self-attribution, cognitive dissonance, interpersonal perception, functional analysis

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