Are Diversity Programs Merely Ceremonial? Evidence-Free Institutionalization

People respond to constraints and efforts to influence their decisions by rebelling to reassert personal control.

“The self-determination literature shows that people respond to constraints and efforts to influence their decisions by rebelling to reassert personal control (Brehm and Brehm, 1981;Silvia, 2005).”

• cites Brehm and Brehm, 1981Not matched

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• cites Silvia, 2005 sourceSupported

Companies that made diversity training voluntary saw some increases in managerial diversity.

“Making training mandatory appears to be particularly harmful; companies that made diversity training voluntary saw some increases in managerial diversity.”

In the average company that made training mandatory for managers, Asian American men and women in management decreased by 4-5% over about five years.

“In the average company that made training mandatory for managers, black women in management decreased by 10%, and Asian American men and women decreased by 4-5%, over about five years (see Figure 31.1;see Dobbin et al., 2007;Dobbin et al., 2015;Kalev et al., 2006 for details on model estimation).”

• cites Dobbin et al., 2007Not matched

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• cites Dobbin et al., 2015Not matched

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• cites Kalev et al., 2006Not matched

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Companies that create performance rating systems see a 4% decrease in white women over the next five years.

“On average, companies that create performance rating systems see no change in minority managers over the next five years, and a 4% decrease in white women (we omit this policy from the figure).”

Companies that appoint diversity managers see increases in white women, black men and women, Hispanic women and Asian American men and women in management ranging from 7% to 18% in the following five years.

“Companies that appoint diversity managers see increases in white women, black men and women, Hispanic women and Asian American men and women in management ranging from 7% to 18% in the following five years.”

At the average company that puts in a diversity taskforce, white women and each of the minority groups grow in management by 8 to 30% over 5 years.

“We find that at the average company that puts in a diversity taskforce, white women and each of the minority groups grow in management by 8 to 30% over 5 years (see Figure 31.5)(Dobbin et al., 2015).”

• cites Dobbin et al., 2015Not matched

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Making training mandatory appears to be particularly harmful.

“Making training mandatory appears to be particularly harmful; companies that made diversity training voluntary saw some increases in managerial diversity.”

After companies adopt civil rights grievance systems, they see significant declines in white women managers, and all minority groups except Hispanic men, ranging from 4% to 11%.

“After companies adopt civil rights grievance systems, they see significant declines in white women managers, and all minority groups except Hispanic men, ranging from 4% to 11%.”

Our longitudinal studies of a national sample of firms, over the course of 30 years, suggest these engagement activities typically promote diversity, even in the hard-to-change ranks of management.

“Our longitudinal studies of a national sample of firms, over the course of 30 years, suggest these engagement activities typically promote diversity, even in the hard-to-change ranks of management.”

Companies that put in diversity performance ratings for managers see no positive effects.

“Those that put in diversity performance ratings for managers see no positive effects, and negative effects of 6% for black men in management.”

Studies of the effects of these programs on the share of women and minorities in management suggest that they do not work.

“Studies of the effects of these programs on the share of women and minorities in management suggest that they do not work.”

On average, companies that create performance rating systems see no change in minority managers over the next five years.

“On average, companies that create performance rating systems see no change in minority managers over the next five years, and a 4% decrease in white women (we omit this policy from the figure).”

In the average company that made training mandatory for managers, black women in management decreased by 10% over about five years.

“In the average company that made training mandatory for managers, black women in management decreased by 10%, and Asian American men and women decreased by 4-5%, over about five years (see Figure 31.1;see Dobbin et al., 2007;Dobbin et al., 2015;Kalev et al., 2006 for details on model estimation).”

• cites Dobbin et al., 2007Not matched

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• cites Dobbin et al., 2015Not matched

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• cites Kalev et al., 2006Not matched

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Companies that provided feedback to managers on their diversity performance appear to elicit resistance.

“Companies that provided feedback to managers on their diversity performance appear to elicit resistance as well.”

Companies that put in diversity performance ratings for managers see negative effects of 6% for black men in management.

“Those that put in diversity performance ratings for managers see no positive effects, and negative effects of 6% for black men in management.”

In the field of diversity management, more firms have programs that constrain managers and control discretion than have programs that engage managers or create social accountability.

“Unfortunately, in the field of diversity management, more firms have programs that constrain managers and control discretion than have programs that engage managers or create social accountability.”

Companies creating written job tests for managers see decreases of 4-16% in white women, black men and women, Hispanic men and women, and Asian women over the next five years.

“Companies creating written job tests for managers -about 10% have them today -see decreases of 4-16% in white women, black men and women, Hispanic men and women, and Asian women over the next five years.”

Just 10% of medium and large employers have diversity managers.

“Taskforces and diversity managers activate both engagement and accountability, but only 20% of medium and large employers have taskforces, and just 10% have diversity managers.”

Efforts to control managers' thinking and decision-making are more common than efforts to engage managers or create social accountability.

“Efforts to control managers' thinking and decision-making are more common.”

Some innovations described as largely symbolic, such as diversity managers and diversity taskforces, are highly effective.

“We show that some innovations that have been described as largely symbolic, such as diversity managers and diversity taskforces (Edelman and Petterson, 1999), are highly effective, while others that are costly or disruptive, such as diversity training, diversity score cards and networking programs, are not effective.”

• cites Edelman and Petterson, 1999Not matched

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Neither the cheerleaders for change, nor the executives who went along kicking and screaming, knew which practices actually promoted diversity.

“As we argue below, neither the cheerleaders for change, nor the executives who went along kicking and screaming, knew which practices actually promoted diversity.”

Women in personnel management fought to keep and expand equal opportunity programs in the face of the Reagan-era retrenchment of civil rights laws.

“Women in personnel also fought to keep and expand equal opportunity programs in the face of the Reagan-era retrenchment of civil rights laws.”

Other innovations that are costly or disruptive, such as diversity training, diversity score cards and networking programs, are not effective.

“We show that some innovations that have been described as largely symbolic, such as diversity managers and diversity taskforces (Edelman and Petterson, 1999), are highly effective, while others that are costly or disruptive, such as diversity training, diversity score cards and networking programs, are not effective.”

• cites Edelman and Petterson, 1999Not matched

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Innovations diffuse based not so much on evidence as on 'theorization'.

“We have arrived at this situation because, as institutionalists have been arguing, innovations diffuse based not so much on evidence as on 'theorization' (Davis and Greve, 1997;Johnson et al., 2006;Strang, 2010;Strang and Meyer. 1993).”

• cites Davis and Greve, 1997 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Johnson et al., 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Strang, 2010Not matched

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Job-autonomy and self-determination theories suggest that bias-control efforts, including training and bureaucratic controls, will backfire by sparking managerial resistance.

“Thus job-autonomy and self-determination theories suggest that bias-control efforts, including training and bureaucratic controls, will backfire by sparking managerial resistance.”

These groups generally favored practices designed to stop bias through education, feedback or bureaucratic controls to quash managerial bias, such as mandatory job tests, formal performance ratings and grievance procedures.

“These groups often got the innovations they wanted.They generally favored practices designed to stop bias through education, feedback or bureaucratic controls to quash managerial bias, such as mandatory job tests, formal performance ratings and grievance procedures.”

In negotiating discrimination suit settlements, liberal federal litigators ask for ineffective diversity practices but not for effective practices.

“Others find that in negotiating discrimination suit settlements, liberal federal litigators ask for ineffective diversity practices but not for effective practices (Hegewisch et al., 2011;Schlanger and Kim, 2014).”

• cites Hegewisch et al., 2011Not matched

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• cites Schlanger and Kim, 2014Not matched

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Diversity taskforces, diversity managers and federal regulators activate 'evaluation apprehension' on the part of managers making personnel decisions, and thereby promote workforce diversity.

“Studies show that diversity taskforces, diversity managers and federal regulators activate 'evaluation apprehension' on the part of managers making personnel decisions, and thereby promote workforce diversity.”

Research confirms that bias-control efforts backfire by sparking managerial resistance.

“Research confirms this expectation.”

Practitioners do not know which diversity practices really work.

“While some practices are 'theorized' to have merely symbolic value (posting an equal opportunity statement) and others are 'theorized' to work (mandatory diversity training), practitioners do not know which really work (spoiler: neither works).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The survey mentioned is representative of ardent advocates of equal opportunity and their knowledge.

Groups develop myths of causality about innovations but rarely put those myths to empirical tests.

“We suggest, instead, that groups develop myths of causality about innovations but rarely put those myths to empirical tests.”

When corporate officials charged with hiring, promotion and pay decisions feel accountable to others, they will scrutinize their own behavior for signs of bias, and make personnel decisions based on evidence rather than stereotypes.

“Finally, accountability theory suggests that when corporate officials charged with hiring, promotion and pay decisions feel accountable to others, they will scrutinize their own behavior for signs of bias, and make personnel decisions based on evidence rather than stereotypes.”

Those who brought change to firms were not seeking mere symbolic compliance with the law.

“Those who brought change to firms were not seeking mere symbolic compliance with the law.”

Firms with human resources departments, diversity staff and HR consultants became significantly more likely than their peers to adopt a range of different diversity measures.

“As personnel departments took charge of diversity management, and became dominated by women, the profession became the leading local advocate of diversity programs in most companies; firms with human resources departments, diversity staff and HR consultants became significantly more likely than their peers to adopt a range of different diversity measures (Dobbin et al., 1993, Dobbin andKelly, 2007”

• cites Dobbin et al., 1993 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Dobbin and Kelly, 2007Not matched

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• cites Edelman, 1990 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Women executives often support policies that do not work.

“One piece of evidence in support of our contention that corporate adoption of diversity programs that serve purely symbolic purposes is not entirely deliberate is that women executives often support policies that do not work.”

• cites Dobbin et al., 2007Not matched

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• cites Dobbin et al., 2011Not matched

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• cites Edelman and Petterson, 1999Not matched

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Because no one has known which corporate diversity innovations have only symbolic value, executives who were secretly opposed to diversity could not systematically choose interventions that did not work.

“Our core argument is that because no one has known which corporate diversity innovations have only symbolic value, executives who were secretly opposed to diversity could not systematically choose interventions that did not work.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Executives who were secretly opposed to diversity would have chosen ineffective interventions if they had known which interventions were ineffective.

The effects of corporate innovations are typically based on untested theories, rather than on evidence.

“We argue that because the effects of corporate innovations are typically based on untested theories, rather than on evidence, leaders who hope to make real change, as well as those who do not, operate in the dark.”

Hiring managers may resist the formal control of job tests by administering tests selectively.

“However, hiring managers may resist the formal control of job tests by administering tests selectively (Mong and Roscigno, 2010: 10;Puma, 1966).”

• cites Mong and Roscigno, 2010Not matched

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• cites Puma, 1966Not matched

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Efforts to control managerial bias through rules and rehabilitation will fail.

“Everything we know from psychological and sociological studies of work suggests that efforts to control managerial bias through rules and rehabilitation will fail.”

Women executives do not help to spread mentoring programs, which are highly effective.

“They do not help to spread mentoring programs, which are highly effective (Dobbin et al., 2007;Dobbin et al., 2011;Edelman and Petterson, 1999).”

• cites Dobbin et al., 2007Not matched

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• cites Dobbin et al., 2011Not matched

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• cites Edelman and Petterson, 1999Not matched

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Managers sometimes ignore test results that do not reinforce stereotypes.

“Studies suggest that managers sometimes require only minority applicants to take tests (Purcell, 1953) or ignore test results that do not reinforce stereotypes (Rivera, 2015).”

• cites Rivera, 2015Not matched

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Managers sometimes require only minority applicants to take tests.

“Studies suggest that managers sometimes require only minority applicants to take tests (Purcell, 1953) or ignore test results that do not reinforce stereotypes (Rivera, 2015).”

• cites Purcell, 1953Not matched

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None of the organizational initiatives found with any regularity in these settlements shows a positive effect on workforce diversity.

“In fact, none of the organizational initiatives found with any regularity in these settlements shows a positive effect on workforce diversity.”

Rules that govern personnel decisions represent a second control strategy for quashing bias.

“Rules that govern personnel decisions represent a second control strategy for quashing bias.”

When people think they will be asked to account for a decision, they suppress bias.

“Reskin (2000) and Bielby (2000) build on accountability theory from psychology, which suggests that when people think they will be asked to account for a decision, they suppress bias (Tetlock, 1992;Lerner and Tetlock, 1999).”

• cites Tetlock, 1992 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Lerner and Tetlock, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Managers appear to rebel against grievance systems, which threaten their autonomy by opening them to rebuke.

“But managers appear to rebel against grievance systems, which threaten their autonomy by opening them to rebuke (Edelman, 1992(Edelman, : 1543)).”

• cites Edelman, 1992 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

After the Reagan administration reduced enforcement, the positive effect of federal contractor status declined.

“After the Reagan administration reduced enforcement, the positive effect of federal contractor status declined (Kalev and Dobbin, 2006).”

• cites Kalev and Dobbin, 2006Not matched

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Meta-analyses show a persistent gap in ratings of black and white workers.

“Meta-analyses show a persistent gap in ratings of black and white workers (McKay andMcDaniel 2006, Roth et al., 2003).”

• cites McKay andMcDaniel 2006Not matched

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• cites Roth et al., 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Well-intentioned activists often backed practices that were worse than ineffective - that were counter-productive.

“Well-intentioned activists often backed practices that were worse than ineffective -that were counter-productive.”

So long as executives do not twist their arms, even managers who are cool to the idea of promoting diversity will come to support diversity through policies that engage them in positive change.

“So long as executives do not twist their arms, we suggest, even managers who are cool to the idea of promoting diversity will come to support diversity through policies that engage them in positive change.”

Raters often prefer white men to similarly productive women and non-whites.

“Studies suggest that raters often prefer white men to similarly productive women and non-whites (Hamner et al., 1974;Heilman, 1995;Kraiger and Ford, 1985;Oppler et al., 1992;Pulakos et al., 1989;Roth et al., 2003;Tsui and Gutek, 1984).”

• cites Hamner et al., 1974Not matched

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• cites Heilman, 1995Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Kraiger and Ford, 1985 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Even the most ardent of diversity champions promote innovations drawing on theorization by management gurus and leading firms, rather than on hard evidence.

“The flip side is that even the most ardent of diversity champions promote innovations drawing on theorization by management gurus and leading firms, rather than on hard evidence.”

Anti-bias training can activate rather than suppress bias.

“They suggest that anti-bias training can activate rather than suppress bias (Kidder et al., 2004;Naff and Kellough, 2003;Rynes and Rosen, 1995;Sidanius et al., 2001).”

• cites Kidder et al., 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Naff and Kellough, 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Rynes and Rosen, 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Retaliation against complainants may be widespread.

“This suggests that retaliation against complainants may be widespread.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: In 2015, 45% of nearly 90,000 EEOC discrimination complaints included a charge of retaliation.

Lacking autonomy, workers often try to assert control through sabotage, goldbricking and resistance.

“Lacking autonomy, workers often try to assert control through sabotage, goldbricking and resistance (Gouldner, 1954;Hodson, 1991aHodson, , 1991b;;Roy, 1952).”

• cites Gouldner, 1954Not matched

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• cites Hodson, 1991aNot matched

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• cites Roy, 1952 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

EEOC litigation and investigation of complaints, and OFCCP compliance reviews of federal contractors, promote the use of a number of different diversity programs.

“EEOC litigation and investigation of complaints, and OFCCP compliance reviews of federal contractors, have been shown to promote the use of a number of different diversity programs (Edelman, 1992).”

• cites Edelman, 1992 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The control strategies (bias control) are, for the average firm, worse than ceremonial - they have adverse effects on actual workforce diversity.

“The control strategies we begin with are, for the average firm, worse than ceremonial -they have adverse effects on actual workforce diversity.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The effects of diversity programs observed in prior studies generalize to the average firm.

In firms that use mathematical formulas to link compensation to objective ratings, managers resist by interpreting scores subjectively to pay their cronies more.

“In firms that use mathematical formulas to link compensation to objective ratings, managers resist by interpreting scores subjectively to pay their cronies more (Castilla, 2008;Shwed and Kalev, 2014).”

• cites Castilla, 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Shwed and Kalev, 2014Not matched

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Some of the innovations they favor backfire.

“Some of the innovations they favor backfire.”

When white subjects read anti-prejudice materials and feel pressured to agree, their anti-black prejudice increases.

“For instance, when white subjects read anti-prejudice materials and feel pressured to agree, their anti-black prejudice increases (Legault et al., 2011).”

• cites Legault et al., 2011Not matched

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Managers try to circumvent performance rating systems to achieve their own purposes.

“It appears that managers try to circumvent performance rating systems to achieve their own purposes.”

In employers with federal contracts, diversity practices tend to work better due to evaluation apprehension.

“In employers with federal contracts, diversity practices tend to work better due to evaluation apprehension (Kalev et al., 2006).”

• cites Kalev et al., 2006Not matched

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Rules elicit rebellion.

“Rules elicit rebellion.”

The evidence suggests that people resist obtrusive controls in different ways for different practices.

“The evidence suggests that they do so in different ways for different practices.”

Advocates do not necessarily know whether the programs they promote are effective or not because they operate in a faith-based, evidence-free zone.

“Advocates do not necessarily know whether the programs they promote are effective or not because they operate in a faith-based, evidence-free zone.”

When behavior conflicts with beliefs, people experience cognitive dissonance.

“Festinger argued that when behavior conflicts with beliefs, people experience cognitive dissonance.”

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Whites resist external controls on racial prejudice.

“Studies of bias control confirm the general principle: whites resist external controls on racial prejudice (Galinsky and Moskowitz, 2000;Plant and Devine, 2001).”

• cites Galinsky and Moskowitz, 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Plant and Devine, 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Since then, winning a federal contract predicts a decline in diversity in most firms.

“Since then, winning a federal contract predicts a decline in diversity in most firms (Kalev et al., 2006).”

• cites Kalev et al., 2006Not matched

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Window-dressing, or 'symbolic compliance', may have the unanticipated effect of actually changing workplaces.

“Window-dressing, or 'symbolic compliance', may have the unanticipated effect of actually changing workplaces.”

Evaluation apprehension, or the concern that one's decisions will be reviewed, has been shown to reduce bias in assessments of individuals.

“Evaluation apprehension (Cottrell, 1972), or the concern that one's decisions will be reviewed, has been shown to reduce bias in assessments of individuals (Kruglanski and Freund, 1983).”

• cites Cottrell, 1972Not matched

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• cites Kruglanski and Freund, 1983 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

When people's attitudes and behaviors are out of sync, they face internal pressure to bring the two into alignment.

“Psychologists find that when people's attitudes and behaviors are out of sync, they face internal pressure to bring the two into alignment (Cooper and Fazio, 1984;Zanna and Cooper, 1974).”

• cites Cooper and Fazio, 1984 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Zanna and Cooper, 1974 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Cognitive-dissonance and self-perception theories suggest that by encouraging managers to help solve the problem, employers help managers to think of themselves as proponents of change.

“Cognitive-dissonance and self-perception theories suggest that by encouraging them to help solve the problem, employers help managers to think of themselves as proponents of change (Bem, 1972;Festinger, 1957;Festinger and Carlsmith, 1959;Ito et al., 2006;Mori and Mori, 2013).”

• cites Bem, 1972 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Festinger, 1957 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Festinger and Carlsmith, 1959 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Liberal regulators and judges actively promoted corporate innovations they expected to work.

“Liberal regulators and judges actively promoted corporate innovations they expected to work.”

Diversity programs may have unintended consequences that thwart their best (or worst) intentions.

“The result is that both for crusaders hoping to promote equality of opportunity, and for executives who want no more than symbolic measures that will not change their workforces, diversity programs may have unintended consequences that thwart their best (or worst) intentions.”