Cushing's syndrome

Lacroix, André; Feelders, Richard A; Stratakis, Constantine A; Nieman, Lynnette K

doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(14)61375-1

Cited by 1,777Pituitary Gland Disorders and TreatmentsAdrenal and Paraganglionic TumorsAdrenal Hormones and Disorders

Cushing's syndrome

Lacroix, André, Feelders, Richard A, Stratakis, Constantine A, Nieman, Lynnette K·2015·The Lancet

DOI 10.1016/s0140-6736(14)61375-1

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Abstract

Chronic exposure to excess glucorticoids results in diverse manifestations of Cushing's syndrome, including debilitating morbidities and increased mortality. Genetic and molecular mechanisms responsible for excess cortisol secretion by primary adrenal lesions and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) secretion from corticotroph or ectopic tumours have been identified. New biochemical and imaging diagnostic approaches and progress in surgical and radiotherapy techniques have improved the management of patients. The therapeutic goal is to normalise tissue exposure to cortisol to reverse increased morbidity and mortality. Optimum treatment consisting of selective and complete resection of the causative tumour is necessay to allow eventual normalisation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, maintenance of pituitary function, and avoidance of tumour recurrence. The development of new drugs offers clinicians several choices to treat patients with residual cortisol excess. However, for patients affected by this challenging syndrome, the long-term effects and comorbidities associated with hypercortisolism need ongoing care.

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The estimated incidence of endogenous Cushing syndrome is 0.2 to 5.0 per million people per year.
“The estimated incidence of endogenous CS is 0.2 to 5.0 per million people per year and the estimated prevalence is 39 to 79 per million in various populations (2).”
From Approach to the Patient: Diagnosis of Cushing Syndrome (2022) · cites this paper as [2]
ACTH-independent Cushing syndrome accounts for 15% to 20% of cases.
“ACTH-dependent CS accounts for 80% to 85% of cases and ACTH-independent accounts for 15% to 20% (2, 4, 5).”
From Approach to the Patient: Diagnosis of Cushing Syndrome (2022) · cites this paper as [2]
ACTH-dependent Cushing syndrome accounts for 80% to 85% of cases.
“ACTH-dependent CS accounts for 80% to 85% of cases and ACTH-independent accounts for 15% to 20% (2, 4, 5).”
From Approach to the Patient: Diagnosis of Cushing Syndrome (2022) · cites this paper as [2]
The estimated prevalence of endogenous Cushing syndrome is 39 to 79 per million in various populations.
“The estimated incidence of endogenous CS is 0.2 to 5.0 per million people per year and the estimated prevalence is 39 to 79 per million in various populations (2).”
From Approach to the Patient: Diagnosis of Cushing Syndrome (2022) · cites this paper as [2]
Cushing disease is the most common cause of ACTH-dependent CS, accounting for approximately 80% of cases.
“Cushing disease, the most common cause of ACTH-dependent CS accounting for approximately 80% of cases, occurs when a pituitary adenoma secretes ACTH, which in turn stimulates supraphysiologic secretion of cortisol from the adrenal glands (2, 4, 5, 73).”
From Approach to the Patient: Diagnosis of Cushing Syndrome (2022) · cites this paper as [2]

Cushing disease occurs when a pituitary adenoma secretes ACTH, which stimulates supraphysiologic secretion of cortisol from the adrenal glands.
“Cushing disease, the most common cause of ACTH-dependent CS accounting for approximately 80% of cases, occurs when a pituitary adenoma secretes ACTH, which in turn stimulates supraphysiologic secretion of cortisol from the adrenal glands (2, 4, 5, 73).”
From Approach to the Patient: Diagnosis of Cushing Syndrome (2022) · cites this paper as [2]
ACTH-independent CS is usually caused by an adrenal adenoma and less frequently by bilateral micro- or macronodular adrenal hyperplasia and adrenal carcinoma.
“ACTH-independent CS is usually caused by an adrenal adenoma and less frequently by bilateral micro- or macronodular adrenal hyperplasia and adrenal carcinoma.”
From Approach to the Patient: Diagnosis of Cushing Syndrome (2022) · cites this paper as [2]
Individually, none of the dynamic tests have 100% specificity because of high false-positive rates, and results can be discordant in up to 65% of patients.
“Individually, none of these tests have 100% specificity because if high false-positive rates, and results can be discordant in up to 65% of patients (2) because of a number of factors including differences in type of ectopic tumor, patient age, patient sex, and severity of hypercortisolism (9).”
From Approach to the Patient: Diagnosis of Cushing Syndrome (2022) · cites this paper as [2]
In cases of discordant results, BIPSS is needed to determine the disease source.
“In cases of discordant results, BIPSS is needed to determine the disease source (2).”
From Approach to the Patient: Diagnosis of Cushing Syndrome (2022) · cites this paper as [2]
Very rare causes of ACTH-independent CS include primary pigmented nodular adrenocortical disease, the Carney complex, and McCune-Albright syndrome.
“Very rare causes include primary pigmented nodular adrenocortical disease, the Carney complex, and McCune-Albright syndrome (2).”
From Approach to the Patient: Diagnosis of Cushing Syndrome (2022) · cites this paper as [2]
Maternal morbidity caused by CS in pregnancy includes hypertension, preeclampsia, wound breakdown, diabetes, fractures, and opportunistic infections.
“Maternal morbidity caused by CS includes hypertension, preeclampsia, wound breakdown, diabetes, fractures, and opportunistic infections (2, 92).”
From Approach to the Patient: Diagnosis of Cushing Syndrome (2022) · cites this paper as [2]
Fetal morbidity associated with CS in pregnancy includes spontaneous abortion, perinatal death, premature birth, and intrauterine growth retardation.
“Fetal morbidity includes rates of spontaneous abortion, perinatal death, premature birth, and intrauterine growth retardation (see Figure 4).”
From Approach to the Patient: Diagnosis of Cushing Syndrome (2022) · cites this paper as [2]
Early diagnosis and management of CS during pregnancy are important because of associated fetal and maternal morbidity.
“Early diagnosis and management of CS during pregnancy are important because of associated fetal and maternal morbidity.”
From Approach to the Patient: Diagnosis of Cushing Syndrome (2022) · cites this paper as [2]
Patients with long-term cortisol excess, as seen in Cushing syndrome, and patients treated with glucocorticoids often have increased susceptibility to hyperglycaemia and manifest diabetes mellitus.
“Patients with long-term cortisol excess, as seen in those with Cushing syndrome 24 , and patients treated with glucocorticoids often have increased susceptibility to hyperglycaemia and manifest diabetes mellitus 25 .”
From Type 2 diabetes mellitus and psychological stress — a modifiable risk factor (2017) · cites this paper as [24]

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Management of adrenal incidentalomas: European society of endocrinology clinical practice guideline in collaboration with the European network for the study of adrenal tumors
Fassnacht, M., Arlt, W., Bancos, I., Dralle, H., Newell-Price, J., Sahdev, A., Tabarin, A., Terzolo, M., Tsagarakis, S., & Dekkers, O. M. (2016) · European Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1530/eje-16-0467 · Cited by 1,566 · see citing works
Treatment of Cushing's syndrome: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline
Nieman, L. K., Biller, B. M. K., Findling, J. W., Murad, M. H., Newell-Price, J., Savage, M. O., & Tabarin, A. (2015) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2015-1818 · Cited by 1,270 · see citing works
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Consensus on diagnosis and management of Cushing's disease: a guideline update
Fleseriu, M., Auchus, R., Bancos, I., Ben-Shlomo, A., Bertherat, J., Biermasz, N. R., Boguszewski, C. L., Bronstein, M. D., Buchfelder, M., Carmichael, J. D., et al. (2021) · The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology · doi:10.1016/s2213-8587(21)00235-7 · Cited by 953 · see citing works
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A 12-month phase 3 study of pasireotide in Cushing's disease
Colao, A., Petersenn, S., Newell-Price, J., Findling, J. W., Gu, F., Maldonado, M., Schoenherr, U., Dipl.-Biol., Mills, D., Salgado, L. R., et al. (2012) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmoa1105743 · Cited by 628 · see citing works
Type 2 diabetes mellitus and psychological stress — a modifiable risk factor
Hackett, R. A., & Steptoe, A. (2017) · Nature Reviews Endocrinology · doi:10.1038/nrendo.2017.64 · Cited by 480 · see citing works
Stress Hormone Regulation: Biological Role and Translation into Therapy
Holsboer, F., & Ising, M. (2010) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100321 · Cited by 473 · see citing works
Constitutive activation of PKA catalytic subunit in adrenal Cushing’s syndrome
Beuschlein, F., Fassnacht, M., Assié, G., Calebiro, D., Stratakis, C. A., Osswald, A., Ronchi, C. L., Wieland, T., Sbiera, S., Faucz, F. R., et al. (2014) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmoa1310359 · Cited by 443 · see citing works
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Dynamics of ACTH and Cortisol Secretion and Implications for Disease
Lightman, S. L., Birnie, M. T., & Conway-Campbell, B. L. (2020) · Endocrine Reviews · doi:10.1210/endrev/bnaa002 · Cited by 439 · see citing works
Chronic Stress-induced Hippocampal Vulnerability: The Glucocorticoid Vulnerability Hypothesis
Conrad, C. D. (2008) · Reviews in the Neurosciences · doi:10.1515/revneuro.2008.19.6.395 · Cited by 425 · see citing works
The European Registry on Cushing’s syndrome: 2-year experience. Baseline demographic and clinical characteristics
Valassi, E., Santos, A., Yaneva, M., Tóth, M., Strasburger, C. J., Chanson, P., Wass, J. A. H., Chabre, O., Pfeifer, M., Feelders, R. A., et al. (2011) · European Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1530/eje-11-0272 · Cited by 402 · see citing works
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Secondary arterial hypertension: when, who, and how to screen?
Rimoldi, S. F., Scherrer, U., & Messerli, F. H. (2014) · European Heart Journal · doi:10.1093/eurheartj/eht534 · Cited by 393 · see citing works
Pivotal role of the mineralocorticoid receptor in corticosteroid‐induced adipogenesis
Caprio, M., Fève, B., Claës, A., Viengchareun, S., Lombès, M., & Zennaro, M.-C. (2007) · The FASEB Journal · doi:10.1096/fj.06-7970com · Cited by 337 · see citing works
Cushing’s Syndrome: important issues in diagnosis and management
Findling, J. W., & Raff, H. (2006) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2006-0997 · Cited by 294 · see citing works
Cortisol as a marker for increased mortality in patients with incidental adrenocortical adenomas
Debono, M., Bradburn, M., Bull, M., Harrison, B., Ross, R. J., & Newell-Price, J. (2014) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2014-3007 · Cited by 269 · see citing works
Hair cortisol analysis: An update on methodological considerations and clinical applications
Greff, M. J. E., Levine, J. M., Abuzgaia, A. M., Elzagallaai, A. A., Rieder, M. J., & van Uum, S. H. M. (2019) · Clinical Biochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2018.09.010 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
Glucocorticoids and bone: consequences of endogenous and exogenous excess and replacement therapy
Hardy, R. S., Zhou, H., Seibel, M. J., & Cooper, M. S. (2018) · Endocrine Reviews · doi:10.1210/er.2018-00097 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
Effectiveness of metyrapone in treating Cushing's syndrome: a retrospective multicenter study in 195 patients
Daniel, E., Aylwin, S., Mustafa, O., Ball, S., Munir, A., Boelaert, K., Chortis, V., Cuthbertson, D. J., Daousi, C., Rajeev, S. P., et al. (2015) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2015-2616 · Cited by 231 · see citing works
Activating hotspot L205R mutation in PRKACA and adrenal Cushing’s syndrome
Cao, Y., He, M., Gao, Z., Peng, Y., Li, Y., Li, L., Zhou, W., Li, X., Zhong, X., Lei, Y., et al. (2014) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1249480 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
Accuracy of Diagnostic Tests for Cushing’s Syndrome: A Systematic Review and Metaanalyses
Elamin, M. B., Murad, M. H., Mullan, R., Erickson, D., Harris, K., Nadeem, S., Ennis, R., Erwin, P. J., & Montori, V. M. (2008) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2008-0139 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Efficacy and safety of osilodrostat in patients with Cushing's disease (LINC 3): a multicentre phase III study with a double-blind, randomised withdrawal phase
Pivonello, R., Fleseriu, M., Newell-Price, J., Bertagna, X., Findling, J., Shimatsu, A., Gu, F., Auchus, R., Leelawattana, R., Lee, E. J., et al. (2020) · The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology · doi:10.1016/s2213-8587(20)30240-0 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
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Recurrent somatic mutations underlie corticotropin-independent Cushing’s syndrome
Sato, Y., Maekawa, S., Ishii, R., Sanada, M., Morikawa, T., Shiraishi, Y., Yoshida, K., Nagata, Y., Sato-Otsubo, A., Yoshizato, T., et al. (2014) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1252328 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Mortality in patients with Cushing’s disease more than 10 years after remission: a multicentre, multinational, retrospective cohort study
Clayton, R. N., Jones, P. W., Reulen, R. C., Stewart, P. M., Hassan-Smith, Z. K., Ntali, G., Karavitaki, N., Dekkers, O. M., Pereira, A. M., Bolland, M., et al. (2016) · The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology · doi:10.1016/s2213-8587(16)30005-5 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
Incidence of Venous Thromboembolism in Patients with Cushing's Syndrome: A Multicenter Cohort Study
Stuijver, D. J. F., van Zaane, B., Feelders, R. A., Debeij, J., Cannegieter, S. C., Hermus, A. R., van den Berg, G., Pereira, A. M., de Herder, W. W., Wagenmakers, M. A. E. M., et al. (2011) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2011-1661 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
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Generalized Glucocorticoid Resistance: Clinical Aspects, Molecular Mechanisms, and Implications of a Rare Genetic Disorder
Charmandari, E., Kino, T., Ichijo, T., & Chrousos, G. P. (2008) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2008-0040 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
Efficiency and tolerance of mitotane in Cushing's disease in 76 patients from a single center
Baudry, C., Coste, J., Bou Khalil, R., Silvera, S., Guignat, L., Guibourdenche, J., Abbas, H., Legmann, P., Bertagna, X., & Bertherat, J. (2012) · European Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1530/eje-12-0358 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Time to diagnosis in Cushing's syndrome: a meta-analysis based on 5367 patients
Rubinstein, G., Osswald, A., Hoster, E., Losa, M., Elenkova, A., Zacharieva, S., Machado, M. C., Hanzu, F. A., Zopp, S., Ritzel, K., et al. (2020) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/clinem/dgz136 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Adrenal suppression and Cushing's syndrome secondary to an interaction between ritonavir and fluticasone: a review of the literature
Foisy, M., Yakiwchuk, E., Chiu, I., & Singh, A. (2008) · HIV Medicine · doi:10.1111/j.1468-1293.2008.00579.x · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Glucocorticoids and Type 2 Diabetes: From Physiology to Pathology
Di Dalmazi, G., Pagotto, U., Pasquali, R., & Vicennati, V. (2012) · Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism · doi:10.1155/2012/525093 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Diagnostic tests for children who are referred for the investigation of Cushing syndrome
Batista, D. L., Riar, J., Keil, M., & Stratakis, C. A. (2007) · Pediatrics · doi:10.1542/peds.2006-2402 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
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MECHANISMS IN ENDOCRINOLOGY: Cushing's syndrome causes irreversible effects on the human brain: a systematic review of structural and functional magnetic resonance imaging studies
Andela, C. D., van Haalen, F. M., Ragnarsson, O., Papakokkinou, E., Johannsson, G., Santos, A., Webb, S. M., Biermasz, N. R., van der Wee, N. J. A., & Pereira, A. M. (2015) · European Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1530/eje-14-1101 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
ARMC5Mutations Are a Frequent Cause of Primary Macronodular Adrenal Hyperplasia
Alencar, G. A., Lerario, A. M., Nishi, M. Y., Mariani, B. M. D. P., Almeida, M. Q., Tremblay, J., Hamet, P., Bourdeau, I., Zerbini, M. C. N., Pereira, M. A. A., et al. (2014) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2013-4237 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Outcome of Cushing's disease following transsphenoidal surgery in a single center over 20 years
Hassan-Smith, Z. K., Sherlock, M., Reulen, R. C., Arlt, W., Ayuk, J., Toogood, A. A., Cooper, M. S., Johnson, A. P., & Stewart, P. M. (2012) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2011-2957 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Clinical guidelines for the management of adrenal incidentaloma
Lee, J.-M., Kim, M. K., Ko, S.-H., Koh, J.-M., Kim, B.-Y., Kim, S. W., Kim, S.-K., Kim, H. J., Ryu, O.-H., Park, J., et al. (2017) · Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.3803/enm.2017.32.2.200 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Physiological basis for the etiology, diagnosis, and treatment of adrenal disorders: Cushing’s syndrome, adrenal insufficiency, and congenital adrenal hyperplasia
Raff, H., Sharma, S. T., & Nieman, L. K. (2014) · Comprehensive Physiology · doi:10.1002/cphy.c130035 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
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Steroid Metabolome Analysis in Disorders of Adrenal Steroid Biosynthesis and Metabolism
Storbeck, K.-H., Schiffer, L., Baranowski, E. S., Chortis, V., Prete, A., Barnard, L., Gilligan, L. C., Taylor, A. E., Idkowiak, J., Arlt, W., et al. (2019) · Endocrine Reviews · doi:10.1210/er.2018-00262 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Cushing’s syndrome: from physiological principles to diagnosis and clinical care
Raff, H., & Carroll, T. (2015) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2014.282871 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Specificity of first-line tests for the diagnosis of Cushing's syndrome: assessment in a large series
Pecori Giraldi, F., Ambrogio, A. G., De Martin, M., Fatti, L. M., Scacchi, M., & Cavagnini, F. (2007) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2007-0596 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Association of Diurnal Patterns in Salivary Cortisol With Type 2 Diabetes in the Whitehall II Study
Hackett, R. A., Steptoe, A., & Kumari, M. (2014) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2014-2459 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Novel somatic mutations in the catalytic subunit of the protein kinase A as a cause of adrenal Cushing’s syndrome: a European multicentric study
Di Dalmazi, G., Kisker, C., Calebiro, D., Mannelli, M., Canu, L., Arnaldi, G., Quinkler, M., Rayes, N., Tabarin, A., Laure Jullié, M., et al. (2014) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2014-2152 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Chronic stress and <scp>A</scp> lzheimer's disease: the interplay between the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, genetics and microglia
Milligan Armstrong, A., Porter, T., Quek, H., White, A., Haynes, J., Jackaman, C., Villemagne, V., Munyard, K., Laws, S. M., Verdile, G., et al. (2021) · Biological Reviews · doi:10.1111/brv.12750 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Randomized trial of osilodrostat for the treatment of Cushing disease
Gadelha, M., Bex, M., Feelders, R. A., Heaney, A. P., Auchus, R. J., Gilis-Januszewska, A., Witek, P., Belaya, Z., Yu, Y., Liao, Z., et al. (2022) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/clinem/dgac178 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
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Long-term cognitive impairments and attentional deficits in patients with Cushing’s disease and cortisol-producing adrenal adenoma in remission
Ragnarsson, O., Berglund, P., Eder, D. N., & Johannsson, G. (2012) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2012-1945 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Non-invasive Diagnostic Strategy in ACTH-dependent Cushing’s Syndrome
Frete, C., Corcuff, J.-B., Kuhn, E., Salenave, S., Gaye, D., Young, J., Chanson, P., & Tabarin, A. (2020) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/clinem/dgaa409 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Remission rate after transsphenoidal surgery in patients with pathologically confirmed Cushing’s disease, the role of cortisol, ACTH assessment and immediate reoperation: a large single center experience
Hameed, N., Yedinak, C. G., Brzana, J., Gultekin, S. H., Coppa, N. D., Dogan, A., Delashaw, J. B., & Fleseriu, M. (2013) · Pituitary · doi:10.1007/s11102-012-0455-z · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Impaired quality of life in patients in long-term remission of Cushing’s syndrome of both adrenal and pituitary origin: a remaining effect of long-standing hypercortisolism
Wagenmakers, M. A. E. M., Netea-Maier, R. T., Prins, J. B., Dekkers, T., den Heijer, M., & Hermus, A. R. M. M. (2012) · European Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1530/eje-12-0308 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
60 YEARS OF POMC: Adrenal and extra-adrenal functions of ACTH
Gallo-Payet, N. (2016) · Journal of Molecular Endocrinology · doi:10.1530/jme-15-0257 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Late-night salivary cortisol measurement in the diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome
Carroll, T., Raff, H., & Findling, J. W. (2008) · Nature Clinical Practice Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1038/ncpendmet0837 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Multiple aberrant hormone receptors in Cushing’s syndrome
Ghorayeb, N. E., Bourdeau, I., & Lacroix, A. (2015) · European Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1530/eje-15-0200 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
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Approach to the Patient: Diagnosis of Cushing Syndrome
Savas, M., Mehta, S., Agrawal, N., van Rossum, E. F. C., & Feelders, R. A. (2022) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/clinem/dgac492 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
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Clinical Parameters Are More Likely to Be Associated with Thyroid Hormone Levels than with Thyrotropin Levels: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Fitzgerald, S. P., Bean, N. G., Falhammar, H., & Tuke, J. (2020) · Thyroid® · doi:10.1089/thy.2019.0535 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Recent Updates on the Diagnosis and Management of Cushing's Syndrome
Nieman, L. K. (2018) · Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.3803/enm.2018.33.2.139 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
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“Subclinical Cushing’s syndrome” is not subclinical: improvement after adrenalectomy in 9 patients
Mitchell, I. C., Auchus, R. J., Juneja, K., Chang, A. Y., Holt, S. A., Snyder, W. H., & Nwariaku, F. E. (2007) · Surgery · doi:10.1016/j.surg.2007.10.001 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Atherosclerotic risk factors and complications in patients with non-functioning adrenal adenomas treated with or without adrenalectomy: a long-term follow-up study
Sereg, M., Szappanos, Á., Tőke, J., Karlinger, K., Feldman, K., Kaszper, É., Varga, I., Gláz, E., Rácz, K., & Tóth, M. (2009) · European Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1530/eje-08-0707 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Cortisol measurements in Cushing’s syndrome: immunoassay or mass spectrometry?
Casals, G., & Hanzu, F. A. (2020) · Annals of Laboratory Medicine · doi:10.3343/alm.2020.40.4.285 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Long-term outcome of primary bilateral macronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia after unilateral adrenalectomy
Osswald, A., Quinkler, M., Di Dalmazi, G., Deutschbein, T., Rubinstein, G., Ritzel, K., Zopp, S., Bertherat, J., Beuschlein, F., & Reincke, M. (2019) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2018-02204 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Dose dependency of iatrogenic glucocorticoid excess and adrenal insufficiency and mortality: a cohort study in England
Mebrahtu, T. F., Morgan, A. W., Keeley, A., Baxter, P. D., Stewart, P. M., & Pujades-Rodriguez, M. (2019) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2019-00153 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Emotional and psychological trauma in refugees arriving in Germany in 2015
Ullmann, E., Barthel, A., Taché, S., Bornstein, A., Licinio, J., & Bornstein, S. R. (2015) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/mp.2015.164 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Mechanisms in endocrinology: endogenous subclinical hypercortisolism and bone: a clinical review
Chiodini, I., Vainicher, C. E., Morelli, V, Palmieri, S., Cairoli, E., Salcuni, A. S., Copetti, M., & Scillitani, A. (2016) · European Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1530/eje-16-0289 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Primary bilateral macronodular adrenal hyperplasia
De Venanzi, A., Alencar, G. A., Bourdeau, I., Fragoso, M. C. B. V., & Lacroix, A. (2014) · Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes & Obesity · doi:10.1097/med.0000000000000061 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
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Evaluation of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Function in Childhood and Adolescence
Chrousos, G. P., Kino, T., & Charmandari, E. (2009) · Neuroimmunomodulation · doi:10.1159/000216185 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Usefulness of salivary cortisol in the diagnosis of hypercortisolism: comparison with serum and urinary cortisol
Manetti, L., Rossi, G., Grasso, L., Raffaelli, V., Scattina, I., Del Sarto, S., Cosottini, M., Iannelli, A., Gasperi, M., Bogazzi, F., et al. (2013) · European Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1530/eje-12-0685 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Establishment of revised diagnostic cut-offs for adrenal laboratory investigation using the new Roche Diagnostics Elecsys® cortisol II assay
Raverot, V., Richet, C., Morel, Y., Raverot, G., & Borson-Chazot, F. (2016) · Annales d Endocrinologie · doi:10.1016/j.ando.2016.05.002 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
American association of clinical endocrinologists and american college of endocrinology disease state clinical review: diagnosis of recurrence in Cushing disease
Fleseriu, M., Hamrahian, A. H., Hoffman, A. R., Kelly, D. F., & Katznelson, L. (2016) · Endocrine Practice · doi:10.4158/ep161512.dscr · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Consensus statement by the French Society of Endocrinology (SFE) and French Society of Pediatric Endocrinology & Diabetology (SFEDP) on diagnosis of Cushing's syndrome
Tabarin, A., Assié, G., Barat, P., Bonnet, F., Bonneville, J. F., Borson-Chazot, F., Bouligand, J., Boulin, A., Brue, T., Caron, P., et al. (2022) · Annales d Endocrinologie · doi:10.1016/j.ando.2022.02.001 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Associations Between Systemic and Local Corticosteroid Use With Metabolic Syndrome and Body Mass Index
Savas, M., Muka, T., Wester, V. L., van den Akker, E. L. T., Visser, J. A., Braunstahl, G.-J., Slagter, S. N., Wolffenbuttel, B. H. R., Franco, O. H., & van Rossum, E. F. C. (2017) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2017-01133 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Pros and cons of screening for occult Cushing syndrome
Tabarin, A., & Perez, P. (2011) · Nature Reviews Endocrinology · doi:10.1038/nrendo.2011.51 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
A probabilistic model for Cushing’s syndrome screening in at-risk populations: a prospective multicenter study
León-Justel, A., Madrazo-Atutxa, A., Alvarez-Rios, A. I., Infantes-Fontán, R., Garcia-Arnés, J. A., Lillo-Muñoz, J. A., Aulinas, A., Urgell-Rull, E., Boronat, M., Sánchez-de-Abajo, A., et al. (2016) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2016-1673 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Whom should we screen for Cushing syndrome? The Endocrine Society practice guideline recommendations 2008 revisited
Braun, L. T., Vogel, F., Zopp, S., Marchant Seiter, T., Rubinstein, G., Berr, C. M., Künzel, H., Beuschlein, F., & Reincke, M. (2022) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/clinem/dgac379 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Cushing’s Disease
Nishioka, H., & Yamada, S. (2019) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm8111951 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Cushing’s syndrome in a clinic population with diabetes
Newsome, S., Chen, K., Hoang, J., Wilson, J. D., Potter, J. M., & Hickman, P. E. (2008) · Internal Medicine Journal · doi:10.1111/j.1445-5994.2007.01434.x · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Adrenocortical hyperplasia: A multifaceted disease
Bourdeau, I., Parisien-La Salle, S., & Lacroix, A. (2020) · Best Practice & Research Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.beem.2020.101386 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
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Cardiovascular outcomes in autonomous cortisol secretion and nonfunctioning adrenal adenoma: a systematic review
Park, J., De Luca, A., Dutton, H., Malcolm, J. C., & Doyle, M.-A. (2019) · Journal of the Endocrine Society · doi:10.1210/js.2019-00090 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
The adrenal cortex and life
Vinson, G. P. (2009) · Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.mce.2008.09.008 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Scalp hair cortisol for diagnosis of Cushing's syndrome
Wester, V. L., Reincke, M., Koper, J. W., van den Akker, E. L. T., Manenschijn, L., Berr, C. M., Fazel, J., de Rijke, Y. B., Feelders, R. A., & van Rossum, E. F. C. (2017) · European Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1530/eje-16-0873 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
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Cosyntropin stimulation testing on postoperative day 1 allows for selective glucocorticoid replacement therapy after adrenalectomy for hypercortisolism: results of a novel, multidisciplinary institutional protocol
Ortiz, D. I., Findling, J. W., Carroll, T. B., Javorsky, B. R., Carr, A. A., Evans, D. B., Yen, T. W., & Wang, T. S. (2016) · Surgery · doi:10.1016/j.surg.2015.05.034 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Prospective Evaluation of Late-Night Salivary Cortisol and Cortisone by EIA and LC-MS/MS in Suspected Cushing Syndrome
Kannankeril, J., Carroll, T., Findling, J. W., Javorsky, B., Gunsolus, I. L., Phillips, J., & Raff, H. (2020) · Journal of the Endocrine Society · doi:10.1210/jendso/bvaa107 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Biochemical control during long-term follow-up of 230 adult patients with Cushing disease: a multicenter retrospective study
Geer, E. B., Shafiq, I., Gordon, M. B., Bonert, V., Ayala, A., Swerdloff, R. S., Katznelson, L., Lalazar, Y., Manuylova, E., Pulaski-Liebert, K. J., et al. (2017) · Endocrine Practice · doi:10.4158/ep171787.or · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Reference ranges of late-night salivary cortisol and cortisone measured by LC-MS/MS and accuracy for the diagnosis of cushing's syndrome
Ponzetto, F., Settanni, F., Parasiliti-Caprino, M., Rumbolo, F., Nonnato, A., Ricciardo, M., Amante, E., Priolo, G., Vitali, S., Anfossi, L., et al. (2020) · Journal of Endocrinological Investigation · doi:10.1007/s40618-020-01388-1 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
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Authors: Lacroix, A., Feelders, R. A., Stratakis, C. A., & Nieman, L. K.
Affiliations: Centre Hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal (CA)
Erasmus MC (NL)
National Institutes of Health (US)
Corresponding author: Lacroix, André
ORCID: Lacroix, André
Feelders, Richard A
Stratakis, Constantine A
Nieman, Lynnette K
Venue: The Lancet
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2015-08
Volume: 386
Issue: 9996
Pages: 913-927
ISSN: 0099-5355 (ISSN-L)
0140-6736
DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(14)61375-1
OpenAlex: W2105695548
Cited by: 1,777
References: 61
Citations by year: 2026: 69 · 2025: 94 · 2024: 107 · 2023: 130 · 2022: 137 · 2021: 144 · 2020: 115 · 2019: 129 · 2018: 93 · 2017: 93 · 2016: 103 · 2015: 91 · 2014: 63 · 2013: 75 · 2012: 45
FWCI: 19.15
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: The Lancet (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (publishedVersion)
EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (submittedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health
Canadian Institutes of Health Research
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Pituitary Gland Disorders and Treatments
Health Sciences › Medicine › Surgery › Adrenal and Paraganglionic Tumors
Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Adrenal Hormones and Disorders
Keywords: Cushing's syndrome, hypercortisolism, glucocorticoid excess, adrenal tumors, ectopic ACTH syndrome, pituitary tumors, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, surgical resection, radiotherapy, tumor recurrence, comorbidities
MeSH terms: ACTH Syndrome, Ectopic, Adrenal Hyperplasia, Congenital, Adrenocorticotropic Hormone, Cushing Syndrome, Humans, Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System, Pituitary-Adrenal System, Prognosis, Genetic Predisposition to Disease

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