The DOI matches its Crossref record; 59 of the 59 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 29 of the 54 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease
Open accessAbstract
The concept of cognitive reserve provides an explanation for differences between individuals in susceptibility to age-related brain changes or pathology related to Alzheimer's disease, whereby some people can tolerate more of these changes than others and maintain function. Epidemiological studies suggest that lifelong experiences, including educational and occupational attainment, and leisure activities in later life, can increase this reserve. For example, the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease is reduced in individuals with higher educational or occupational attainment. Reserve can conveniently be divided into two types: brain reserve, which refers to differences in the brain structure that may increase tolerance to pathology, and cognitive reserve, which refers to differences between individuals in how tasks are performed that might enable some people to be more resilient to brain changes than others. Greater understanding of the concept of cognitive reserve could lead to interventions to slow cognitive ageing or reduce the risk of dementia.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review argues that cognitive reserve explains why people differ in how much Alzheimer’s disease pathology or age-related brain change they can tolerate while still functioning. It synthesizes epidemiologic, neuroimaging, postmortem, and intervention evidence, and concludes that reserve is modifiable but that causal interventions remain unproven.
Key findings
- Reserve is split into brain reserve, a more passive quantitative tolerance tied to brain size or neurons/synapses, and cognitive reserve, an active functional process in which pre-existing or compensatory networks help cope with damage.
- Epidemiologic studies cited found that fewer than 8 years of education carried 2.2 times higher dementia risk, low occupational attainment carried 2.25 times higher risk, and greater leisure activity was linked to 38% lower risk; a review of 22 cohort studies estimated higher reserve reduced dementia risk by 46%.
- After Alzheimer’s disease becomes clinically apparent, higher reserve is associated with faster decline: memory scores fell about one point yearly on average, with an additional point yearly in those with higher education or occupation.
- Imaging and autopsy evidence indicated that at matched clinical severity, higher education was linked to greater parietotemporal blood-flow deficit and, in 130 elders, each additional year of education reduced the pathology–cognition association by 0.088 standard units; fMRI work distinguished neural reserve from neural compensation.
Methods
- Narrative review by the author, integrating his group’s and others’ epidemiologic cohort studies, functional and resting neuroimaging studies, postmortem analyses, and cognitive or exercise intervention trials.
- Cited samples include 593 non-demented adults aged 60 or older followed for 4 years, 130 elders who had cognitive evaluation before autopsy, and a preliminary 90-person older-adult Space Fortress training study.
- Main analysis is conceptual synthesis rather than a new primary study or formal meta-analysis; it draws on a cited systematic review of 22 cohort studies for one pooled estimate.
Limitations
- Stated: epidemiologic evidence is correlational and cannot establish causation; controlled intervention studies are needed, and no study to date has shown changes in the key endpoints of slowed cognitive decline or reduced Alzheimer’s disease risk.
- Stated: clinical use of biomarkers and imaging for reserve is premature because prognostic implications are not fully established, and cognitive training evidence is mixed.
- Evident from the text: this is a narrative review without formal risk-of-bias assessment, many findings come from the author’s own research program, and the interaction between brain reserve and cognitive reserve remains unresolved.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
39 Own interpretation · 14 No full text of the sources · 12 No basis given · 10 Supported · 10 Own result · 8 Partly supported · 5 Supported so far · 3 Not checked yet · 2 Couldn’t confirm · 1 Sources not found · accuracy not yet measured
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“This idea is supported by a set of studies that suggest that prevalence or incidence of dementia is lower in individuals with larger brains13, 14.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [13] Katzman, 1988, Clinical, pathological, and neurochemical changes in dementia: a subgroup with preserved mental status and numerous neocortical plaques, Ann Neurol source
- Supportedcites [14] Schofield, 1997, An association between head circumference and Alzheimer's disease in a population-based study of aging, Neurology source
The Discussion (p. 5) reports that smaller head circumference was associated with higher prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease. The paper uses head circumference as an index of premorbid brain size (p. 1), so its finding supports the citing sentence’s hedged association. This study measured prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease, not incidence of dementia generally. (LLM, conf=0.88)
hedgedstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Second, compared to individuals with lower CR, those with higher CR performed better even when they use the second network.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [42] Steffener, 2011, Supporting performance in the face of age-related neural changes: testing mechanistic roles of cognitive reserve, Brain Imaging Behav source
The Results (Model C) report that, in older adults, higher cognitive reserve reduced the negative effect of network 2 expression on task performance. The Discussion likewise says older adults with greater reserve maintained performance better as network 2 expression increased. (LLM, conf=0.88)
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those who engaged in more leisure activities had 38% less risk of developing dementia.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [24] Scarmeas, 2001, Influence of leisure activity on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease, Neurology source
The Discussion explicitly states that subjects with high leisure activity had 38% less risk of developing dementia. The Results report a relative risk of 0.62 (95% CI 0.46–0.83), consistent with that figure. (LLM, conf=0.95)
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“The rate of decline is more rapid in individuals with high reserve than those with low reserve, even when accounting for a multitude of other factors that may contribute to disease course27, 28, 46.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [27] Stern, 1999, Rate of memory decline in AD is related to education and occupation: cognitive reserve?, Neurology sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The DOI was not indexed for paper-scoped Semantic Scholar search, so the cited paper’s full text could not be checked directly. A systematic review, “Education and Dementia in the Context of the Cognitive Reserve Hypothesis” (search score 0.789), explicitly attributes more rapid memory decline in Alzheimer’s patients with higher education and occupational attainment to Stern et al. (1999). This supports the central claim, though the retrieved passage does not verify which other factors the original analysis accounted for. (LLM, conf=0.81)
- Supportedcites [28] Scarmeas, 2006, Education and rates of cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer's disease, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
No paper-scoped Semantic Scholar snippets were available for Scarmeas et al. (2006). However, “Higher education affects accelerated cortical thinning in Alzheimer's disease” explicitly cites Scarmeas et al. (2006) among studies finding more rapid cognitive decline after Alzheimer’s onset in patients with higher education (snippet score 0.534). This supports the claim through a secondary citation, although the available evidence does not independently verify which other factors Scarmeas et al. adjusted for. (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Supportedcites [46] Hall, 2007, Education delays accelerated decline on a memory test in persons who develop dementia, Neurology sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Hall’s (2007) title establishes the finding of delayed accelerated memory decline in people who develop dementia. A Semantic Scholar snippet from “Episodic memory performance in a multi-ethnic longitudinal study of 13,037 elderly” describes the same pattern: education is associated with a delayed change point followed by faster decline (score 0.52). Hall’s full text was unavailable in the paper-scoped search, so the specific assertion about accounting for other factors could not be checked directly; the available evidence supports the core paraphrase, not every qualification. (LLM, conf=0.72)
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“In a young group of subjects we identified an activation network that was expressed during the stimulus presentation phase of both tasks and whose increase in expression with increasing load correlated with CR.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [43] Stern, 2008, A common neural network for cognitive reserve in verbal and object working memory in young but not old, Cereb Cortex source
The Discussion identifies a pattern in young subjects during stimulus presentation whose load-related activation had a similar relationship with cognitive reserve in both the letter and shape tasks. The Canonical Variates Analysis reports significant expression of that pattern in both tasks and relates its load-related expression to cognitive-reserve scores. (LLM, conf=0.91)
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Similar analysis demonstrated a comparable protective effect of occupational attainment33 and leisure activities34.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [33] Stern, 1995, Relationship between lifetime occupation and parietal flow: implications for a reserve against Alzheimer's disease pathology, Neurology source
- Supportedcites [34] Scarmeas, 2003, Association of life activities with cerebral blood flow in Alzheimer disease: implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis, Arch Neurol source
The cited paper’s Results report an inverse association between activity scores and cerebral blood flow after controlling for clinical severity, which the authors interpret as consistent with cognitive reserve. The Conclusions describe analogous findings for occupational attainment and note evidence linking leisure activities to reduced dementia risk. The citation supports the leisure-activities part of the sentence; occupational attainment has a separate citation. (LLM, conf=0.85)
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“For example, at a given level of clinical severity, AD patients with higher education have a more severe pattern of AD-related changes on PET scan than those with lower education44, 45.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [44] Garibotto, 2008, Education and occupation as proxies for reserve in aMCI converters and AD: FDG-PET evidence, Neurology source
- Supportedcites [45] Kemppainen, 2008, Cognitive reserve hypothesis: Pittsburgh Compound B and fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in relation to education in mild Alzheimer's disease, Ann Neurol source
The Abstract reports that high- and low-educated patients with mild Alzheimer’s disease had the same degree of cognitive deterioration, while the high-educated group showed greater amyloid-tracer uptake and lower glucose metabolism on PET. The Discussion likewise describes more pronounced amyloid accumulation and neuronal dysfunction in the high-educated group. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“In AD patients matched for clinical severity, we found an inverse relationship between resting rCBF and years of education32.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [32] Stern, 1992, Inverse relationship between education and parietotemporal perfusion deficit in Alzheimer's disease, Ann Neurol source
The Procedures (p. 2) state that rCBF was measured under resting conditions. The Results (pp. 2–3) report greater parietotemporal flow reductions with more education in AD groups that did not differ on clinical measures; the relationship at the P3 detector remained significant after controlling for dementia severity. (LLM, conf=0.92)
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“The neural implementation of CR might take two forms: neural reserve and neural compensation16, 38.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [16] Stern, 2009, Cognitive reserve, Neuropsychologia source
In “Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR,” Stern explicitly says that the neural implementation of cognitive reserve might take two forms: neural reserve and neural compensation. The “Brain Reserve and Cognitive Reserve” section also describes them as two proposed components. (LLM, conf=0.95)
- Supportedcites [38] Stern, 2005, Brain networks associated with cognitive reserve in healthy young and old adults, Cereb Cortex source
The Introduction (p. 1) explicitly proposes two complementary facets of the neural implementation of cognitive reserve: neural reserve and neural compensation. The paper then defines and contrasts them in the Introduction (pp. 1–2). (LLM, conf=0.95)
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“These observations using cerebral blood flow have been replicated by other groups as well35, 36.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [35] Alexander, 1997, Association of premorbid intellectual function with cerebral metabolism in Alzheimer's disease: implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis, Am J Psychiatry source
- Supportedcites [36] Perneczky, 2006, Schooling mediates brain reserve in Alzheimer's disease: findings of fluoro-deoxy-glucose-positron emission tomography, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry source
The Results report an inverse association between schooling and glucose metabolism in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. The Discussion says these findings are supported by other groups’ cerebral-blood-flow studies, while noting that the results do not match exactly because of differences in samples and methods. This paper used FDG-PET rather than measuring cerebral blood flow itself. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 15
- It may state two separate claims as one. 17
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“In contrast, the concept of CR suggests that the brain actively attempts to cope with brain damage by using pre-existing cognitive processing approaches or by enlisting compensatory approaches15, 16.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [15] Stern, 2002, What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept, J Int Neuropsychol Soc source
- Supportedcites [16] Stern, 2009, Cognitive reserve, Neuropsychologia source
The “Brain Reserve and Cognitive Reserve” section states that active models such as CR propose that the brain copes with damage using pre-existing cognitive processes or enlisting compensatory processes. This directly supports the paraphrase; no page number is provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.95)
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“We replicated this observation in patients with incident AD28 and also found more rapid decline in cognitive function in AD patients who engaged in more leisure activities prior to dementia onset29.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [28] Scarmeas, 2006, Education and rates of cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer's disease, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
- Supportedcites [29] Helzner, 2007, Leisure activity and cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer disease, Arch Neurol source
Split into 2 atoms — 2 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Using a covariance method to analyze the imaging data, we identified a spatial pattern of fMRI activation that was expressed by both groups and whose expression increased as the task became more difficult.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [39] Stern, 2012, Task difficulty modulates young-old differences in network expression, Brain Res source
The Functional imaging section identifies a spatial pattern common to young and old participants. The Discussion states that its expression increased logarithmically with task difficulty. Page numbers are not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In a follow-up analysis41, we found that atrophy in a key area within the first network (i.e. the one that was used by both young and old) was associated with decreased efficiency in that network and increased utilization of the second network.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [41] Steffener, 2009, The impact of age-related changes on working memory functional activity, Brain Imaging Behav sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Conclusion report that lower grey-matter volume in a region of the primary network was associated with greater secondary-network recruitment. The Discussion interprets this as compensation for an affected primary network, but the Results report no significant association between regional grey-matter volume and primary-network expression; decreased efficiency of that network was not demonstrated. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“For example, Basak et al.50 had elders play a complex role-playing game,”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [50] Basak, 2008, Can training in a real-time strategy video game attenuate cognitive decline in older adults?, Psychol Aging sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Method > Participants section says older adults were assigned to play Rise of Nations, and the General Discussion reports transfer benefits after 23.5 hours of training. The paper identifies Rise of Nations as a complex real-time strategy game, not a role-playing game. Its Abstract reports improvement on a subset of cognitive tasks, rather than across the entire battery (page numbers unavailable in our copy). (LLM, conf=0.90)
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In research with young adults, one particular training approach produced excellent improvement in gameplay, but, more importantly, also showed transfer of training to other tasks.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [55] Gopher, 1994, Transfer of skill from a computer game trainer to flight, Hum Factors source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [56] Gopher, 1989, Practice under changing priorities: an approach to the training of complex skills, Acta Psychol source
- Partly supportedcites [57] Blumen, 2010, Training cognitive control in older adults with the space fortress game: the role of training instructions and basic motor ability, Front Aging Neurosci sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction (‘The space fortress game and emphasis change instructions’; page unavailable) reports that emphasis-change instructions improved Space Fortress performance in younger adults compared with standard instructions. It says those instructions *may* be important for transfer, but does not report that this approach demonstrated transfer to other tasks. The General Discussion (page unavailable) says future studies will determine whether such transfer occurs. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Those who rely more on this alternate network can still perform the task, but do so more poorly.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On the average scores on a memory test decline by about one point yearly, but in those with higher educational or occupational attainment scores decline by an additional point each year.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The first network was used by both young and old subjects, and consisted of areas often associated with working memory.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, the second network was primarily characterized by activation in parahippocampal areas and was used consistently only by the older subjects.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Interestingly, although the game itself was very challenging for the elders, there were few dropouts and performance improved over time.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [58] Orrell, 1995, Education and dementia, BMJ source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Interestingly, although the game itself was very challenging for the elders, there were few dropouts and performance improved over time.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [58] Orrell, 1995, Education and dementia, BMJ source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Each of these networks is a group of brain areas that seem to work together as the task is harder.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
hedgedstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given these assumptions, individuals with higher CR will begin their cognitive decline when pathology is more advanced and thus have less time until they reach the point where pathology overwhelms function.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: There is a common point in all people where pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Still, while in some ways interdependent, brain reserve and CR make independent in addition to synergistic contributions to understanding individual differences in clinical resilience to brain pathology.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the cognitive or neural mechanism that underlies this reserve is unknown.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, clinicians must be aware that in the presence of pathology there should still be a period of time during which even the most sensitive measures would fail to detect cognitive change.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Individuals with high reserve, by definition, will not demonstrate disease-related clinical symptoms as early as individuals with low levels of reserve.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Since people with greater reserve should be able to tolerate more AD pathology, the onset of clinical dementia should be delayed.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plainstates a causen = 593- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is possible that individuals with more efficient or higher capacity networks could have more resilience in the face of age- or disease-related changes.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Only controlled studies can truly establish that some set of interventions or experiences are beneficial.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In schizophrenia, small effects of cognitive remediation were noted, particularly in stable patients and when combined with adjunctive rehabilitation52.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [52]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While the original observations concern easily measurable variables like education or occupational attainment, more recent studies have delved more deeply into lifestyle factors, cognitively stimulating behaviors, personality factors and the like.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the exact”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These findings support the possibility that it may be possible to intervene even later in life in order to impart reserve, slow age-related cognitive decline, and prolonged healthy aging.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is a hopeful idea, since it suggests that changes in lifestyle even later in life might impart reserve against age-related cognitive decline or dementia.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Similarly, focused training has improved working memory capacity and shown transfer of training to nontrained working memory tasks51.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [51] Klingberg, 2010, Training and plasticity of working memory, Trends Cogn Sci source
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Studies using these endpoints will be very expensive because they will require a large number of participants and will have to be conducted over several years.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While epidemiologic studies can only describe correlations and do not directly test causation, they are useful for deriving hypotheses and exploring ideas.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By shifting emphasis from game to game, participants cannot fall into a fixed strategy. They must develop the ability to deal with the entire task as a whole – skills that might be termed attentional allocation or executive control.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Disease pathology slowly develops over time independently of cognitive reserve, and pathology begins many years before the onset of clinically diagnosed Alzheimer's disease.
“The assumption is that disease pathology slowly develops over time independently of CR, and that the pathology begins many years before the onset of clinically diagnosed AD.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
There is a common point in all people where pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.
“However, we reasoned that there is common point in all people where the pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.”
The paper relies on this without support.
No study to date has shown change in slowed rate of cognitive decline in aging or reduced risk of developing Alzheimer's disease.
“No study to date has shown change in either of these endpoints.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The brain both passively and actively attempts to cope with brain changes or pathology.
“Since the brain both passively and actively attempts to cope with brain changes or pathology, it is important to understand the factors that contribute to this resilience.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Researchers have long reported that people with more years of formal education are at lower risk for Alzheimer's and other dementias than those with fewer years of formal education.80,[144][145][146][147][148][149]”
From 2023 Alzheimer's disease facts and figures (2023) · cites this paper as [146]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“This concept was theoretically framed by Park and Bischof (2013) as “scaffolding,” similar to the closely related cognitive reserve theory proposed by Stern (2012).”
In the citing paper
“supporting the theory that a greater cognitive reserve could help protect against development of LOAD117.”
From Genetic meta-analysis of diagnosed Alzheimer’s disease identifies new risk loci and implicates Aβ, tau, immunity and lipid processing (2019) · cites this paper as [117]
In the citing paper
“The level of education, a surrogate marker of cognitive reserves (Stern, 2012), is an important determinant of the expression of VCI, such that for a given level of neuropathology higher education is associated with less cognitive deficits (Zieren et al., 2013).”
From The Pathobiology of Vascular Dementia (2013) · cites this paper as Stern, 2012
In the citing paper
“These findings lead to the suggestion that higher social engagement and support experienced both before and during lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic might have had a protective/mitigating role by contributing to cognitive (51) and affective reserve (52).”
From The impact of COVID-19 infection and enforced prolonged social isolation on neuropsychiatric symptoms in older adults with and without dementia: A review (2020) · cites this paper as [51]
In the citing paper
“Cognitive reserve theory suggests that individuals differ in their level of resilience against brain pathology and hence may exhibit differences in cognitive function despite equivalent levels of pathology (Stern, 2002(Stern, , 2012)).”
From Living alone and cognitive function in later life (2019) · cites this paper as Stern, 2012
In the citing paper
“The theory suggests that individuals differ in their degree of resilience against age-related brain pathology and hence may show differences in cognitive function in relation to an equivalent level of pathology [8, 9].”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
In the citing paper
“Cognitive reserve is a theoretical concept that may account for the role of social isolation and its association with cognitive outcomes in later life.”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
In the citing paper
“Such individuals are likely to receive less cognitive stimulation through social contact, resulting in lower cognitive reserve and hence poorer cognitive function [8, 9].”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
Citations
Cites
What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept
STERN, Y. (2002) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617702813248 · Cited by 3,951
Self-citationRunning increases cell proliferation and neurogenesis in the adult mouse dentate gyrus
van Praag, H., Kempermann, G., & Gage, F. H. (1999) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/6368 · Cited by 3,880
Stern, Y. (2009) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.03.004 · Cited by 2,943
Self-citationRunning enhances neurogenesis, learning, and long-term potentiation in mice
van Praag, H., Christie, B. R., Sejnowski, T. J., & Gage, F. H. (1999) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.96.23.13427 · Cited by 2,904
Neural consequences of enviromental enrichment
van Praag, H., Kempermann, G., & Gage, F. H. (2000) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/35044558 · Cited by 2,468
A Meta-Analysis of Cognitive Remediation for Schizophrenia: Methodology and Effect Sizes
Wykes, T., Huddy, V., Cellard, C., McGurk, S. R., & Czobor, P. (2011) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10060855 · Cited by 1,693
Training and plasticity of working memory
Klingberg, T. (2010) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2010.05.002 · Cited by 1,585
Influence of education and occupation on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease
Stern, Y. (1994) · JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association · doi:10.1001/jama.1994.03510370056032 · Cited by 1,434
Self-citationAgeing, fitness and neurocognitive function
Kramer, A. F., Hahn, S., Cohen, N. J., Banich, M. T., McAuley, E., Harrison, C. R., Chason, J., Vakil, E., Bardell, L., Boileau, R. A., et al. (1999) · Nature · doi:10.1038/22682 · Cited by 1,394
Katzman, R., Terry, R., DeTeresa, R., Brown, T., Davies, P., Fuld, P., Renbing, X., & Peck, A. (1988) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.410230206 · Cited by 1,225
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Gurland, 1981, The borderlands of dementia: the influence of sociocultural characteristics on rates of dementia occurring in the senium, Aging, 15, 61
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 1,201–1,300 of 3,536
Association of social deprivation with cognitive status and decline in older adults
Hofbauer, L. M., & Rodriguez, F. (2021) · Das Gesundheitswesen · doi:10.1002/gps.5555 · Cited by 19
“The Cognitive Reserve Theory refers back to educational attainment and occupation as the base for divergent life experiences that affect reserve.(3)Particularly relevant is the exposure to stressors.”
BackgroundRomeiser, J. L., Smith, D., & Clouston, S. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0253053 · Cited by 21
Mild Cognitive Impairment and modifiable risk factors among Lebanese older adults in primary care
Assaf, G., Khoury, J. E., Jawhar, S., & Rahme, D. V. (2021) · Asian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2021.102828 · Cited by 21
Soto‐Añari, M., Camargo, L., Ramos‐Henderson, M., Rivera-Fernández, C., Denegri-Solís, L., Calle, U., Mori, N., Ocampo-Barba, N., López, F., Porto, M. F., et al. (2021) · Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders Extra · doi:10.1159/000518922 · Cited by 20
Hill, N. L., Kolanowski, A. M., Fick, D. M., Chinchilli, V. M., & Jablonski, R. A. (2014) · Research in Gerontological Nursing · doi:10.3928/19404921-20140311-01 · Cited by 18
Eckerström, M., Berg, A. I., Nordlund, A., Rolstad, S., Sacuiu, S. F., & Wallin, A. (2016) · Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders · doi:10.1159/000448326 · Cited by 19
Neuropsychological Predictors of Long-Term (10 Years) Mild Cognitive Impairment Stability
Alves, L., Cardoso, S., Marôco, J. P., de Mendonça, A., Guerreiro, M., & Silva, D. (2018) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-171034 · Cited by 19
Cognitively stimulating activities to keep dementia at bay
Vemuri, P., & Mormino, E. C. (2013) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0b013e31829c5f05 · Cited by 19
Cancel, M., Sauger, C., Biogeau, J., Dardaine‐Giraud, V., Lecomte, T., Solub, D., Combe, P., Wilmet, R., Aubard, E., Deloigne, A., et al. (2024) · Journal of Clinical Oncology · doi:10.1200/jco.23.02150 · Cited by 20
Predictors of cognitive aging profiles over 15 years: A longitudinal population-based study.
Ekström, I., Josefsson, M., Bäckman, L., & Laukka, E. J. (2024) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/pag0000807 · Cited by 21
Chen, J., Zhang, J., Wang, H., Zhu, H., Fu, J., Li, C., Zhang, Q., Xia, X., Ma, H., Liu, J., et al. (2025) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2025.1543501 · Cited by 20
“The increased brain volume associated with higher BMI may provide additional neural resources that can be recruited to maintain cognitive function in case of age-related brain changes (Stern, 2012).”
Klotho Protein: A Multifaceted Guardian of Healthy Aging and Its Therapeutic Potential
Shen, J., Bin, W., Lin, X., Lai, Y., Lin, X., Guan, T., & Liu, H. (2025) · International Journal of Nanomedicine · doi:10.2147/ijn.s514516 · Cited by 24
“Cardiovascular diseases, 37,129 the insidious progression of neurodegenerative disorders 13,29 and the pernicious grip of metabolic syndrome 134–136 are promising to be overcome in the future, and Klotho acts as a guardian to prevent the progression International Journal of Nanomedicine 2025:20…”
Ki, S., Yun, J., Kim, J., & Lee, Y. (2019) · Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health · doi:10.3961/jpmph.19.163 · Cited by 19
“periences such as education and occupational achievements [36], and it may prevent or reduce pathologic brain changes [37].”
BackgroundA nationwide Swedish study of age at retirement and dementia risk
Sundström, A., Rönnlund, M., & Josefsson, M. (2020) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.5363 · Cited by 18
“2,21 However, before strong conclusions related to causality can be drawn, further research focused on potential mediating factors and including additional uncontrolled factors is required.”
Risk of Dementia in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Elias, A., Rowe, C. C., & Hopwood, M. (2020) · Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology · doi:10.1177/0891988720957088 · Cited by 18
“Cognitive reserve is a potential mechanism to buffer the impact of the pathological process associated with Alzheimer’s disease.(33) A recent study demonstrated that increased intracranial volume mitigated adverse effects of dementia pathology on cognitive function, particularly attention and executive function.”
BackgroundBilingualism's Effects on Resting-State Functional Connectivity in Mild Cognitive Impairment
Marín-Marín, L., Palomar‐García, M., Miró‐Padilla, A., Adrián‐Ventura, J., Aguirre, N., Villar‐Rodríguez, E., & Costumero, V. (2020) · Brain Connectivity · doi:10.1089/brain.2020.0877 · Cited by 20
“On the one hand, neural reserve refers to the efficiency and resilience of preexisting cognitive networks that may be capable of maintaining cognitive function despite brain pathology (Barulli and Stern, 2013; Stern, 2012).”
Ng, N. F., Osman, A. M., Kerlan, K. R., Doraiswamy, P. M., & Schafer, R. J. (2021) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2020.564317 · Cited by 21
“Cognitive engagement might enhance or preserve declining brain structures or functions [e.g., ( 19)], or it might recruit additional circuitry that provides compensation (20, 21).”
BackgroundCognitive reserve in stroke patients
Abdullah, A. H., Sharip, S., Rahman, A. H. A., & Bakar, L. (2021) · PsyCh Journal · doi:10.1002/pchj.423 · Cited by 17
Yang, S.-Y., Lee, H., Huang, C., & Chen, J. J. (2021) · Frontiers in Aging · doi:10.3389/fragi.2021.636390 · Cited by 19
“…with this Cognitive Reserve Hypothesis and further suggest that sustained practice in Tai-Chi style multi-component exercise could protect against age-related neurocognitive declines, attenuate neural dysfunction, and postpone the onset of dementia (Stern, 2009, 2012; Huang and Huang, 2019).”
BackgroundBooth, M. J., Janevic, M. R., Kobayashi, L. C., Clauw, D. J., & Piette, J. D. (2021) · BMC Rheumatology · doi:10.1186/s41927-021-00198-z · Cited by 18
Parental status in later life and parents’ risk of cognitive impairment
Zhang, Y., & Fletcher, J. M. (2021) · SSM - Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2021.100968 · Cited by 20
“Also, frequent visits or contact with children can increase interaction and communication, which potentially benefit older parent’s cognitive functioning by maintaining and improving mental stimulation and brain reserves (Kuiper et al., 2015; Stern, 2012; Zahodne et al., 2019).”
BackgroundAdvances in the Pathogenesis of Auto-antibody-Induced Cerebellar Synaptopathies
Mitoma, H., & Manto, M. U. (2022) · The Cerebellum · doi:10.1007/s12311-021-01359-z · Cited by 20
“Compensation and restoration result from rearrangement of remaining/undamaged synapses and subsequent reconstruction of the integrity of the cerebellar networks [103].”
BackgroundO’Neil-Pirozzi, T. M., Cattaneo, G., Sánchez, J. S., Gomes‐Osman, J., & Pascual‐Leone, Á. (2022) · Frontiers in Aging · doi:10.3389/fragi.2022.773944 · Cited by 20
“Neurologically, brain health across the lifespan is associated with intact brain structure, activity, or connectivity patterns and/or with compensations in response to developmental change or pathology (Nyberg et al., 2012; Stern, 2012; Elman et al., 2014; Reuter-Lorenz and Park, 2014).”
BackgroundKleineidam, L., Stark, M., Riedel-Heller, S. G., Pabst, A., Schmiedek, F., Streit, F., Rietschel, M., Klinger-König, J., Grabe, H. J., Erhardt, A., et al. (2022) · The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/15622975.2021.2011408 · Cited by 19
“In contrast, higher cognitive abilities are linked to more efficient neural networks mitigating the effects of neurodegenerative pathologies on brain function (Stern 2012).”
BackgroundCattaneo, G., Sánchez, J. S., Abellaneda‐Pérez, K., Portellano‐Ortiz, C., Delgado‐Gallén, S., Alviarez‐Schulze, V., Pachón‐García, C., Zetterberg, H., Tormos, J. M., Pascual‐Leone, Á., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.835415 · Cited by 22
“Although original conceptualizations of CR mainly considered the roles of education and occupation as proxy variables, in combination with measures of premorbid intelligence estimations (Stern, 2012), a broad variety of activities through life are now being considered (Stern et al., 2020).”
BackgroundSu, J., & Xiao, X. (2022) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000031817 · Cited by 18
“Stern believed that more education, higher job attainment, and an active and engaging lifestyle were protective factors of cognitive function.[2] Age, physical activity, metabolic dysregulation and depressive symptoms were also proposed to be factors affecting the cognitive function in older people.”
BackgroundLi, H., Huang, Z., Gao, Z., Zhu, W., Li, Y., Zhou, S., Li, X., & Yu, Y. (2022) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2022.12.001 · Cited by 18
“In addition, education and occupational achievement can further increase cognitive reserve (Stern, 2012; Yasuno et al., 2020).”
BackgroundThe aging brain: risk factors and interventions for long term brain health in women
Caldwell, J., & Isenberg, N. (2023) · Current Opinion in Obstetrics & Gynecology · doi:10.1097/gco.0000000000000849 · Cited by 18
“In contrast to low education as a risk for AD, greater education builds cognitive reserve [47,48], which in theory can be a source of resilience in the face of cognitive aging.”
BackgroundYe, C., Behnke, J. A., Hardin, K. R., & Zheng, J. Q. (2023) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2023.1150694 · Cited by 22
“Together, these findings lend support to the concept of cognitive reserve, which decreases with age and is associated with the onset of age-related neurodegenerative disorders such as AD (Stern, 2012), as a potential protective factor against the effects of mild head trauma.”
BackgroundRibeiro, F. S., Crivelli, L., & Leist, A. K. (2023) · The Lancet Healthy Longevity · doi:10.1016/s2666-7568(23)00052-1 · Cited by 24
Gómez‐Soria, I., Iguacel, I., Cuenca‐Zaldívar, J. N., Aguilar‐Latorre, A., Peralta, P., Latorre, E., & Calatayud, E. (2023) · Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics · doi:10.1016/j.archger.2023.105114 · Cited by 18
Toward digitally screening and profiling AD: A GAMLSS approach of MemTrax in China
Liu, W., Yu, L., Deng, Q., Li, Y., Lu, P., Yang, J., Chen, F., Li, F., Zhou, X., Bergeron, M. F., et al. (2023) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.13430 · Cited by 16
“27 Our findings are also supported by community studies of Schmand 28 and Staff.”
BackgroundResultVetere, G., Williams, G. H., Ballard, C. G., Creese, B., Hampshire, A., Palmer, A., Pickering, E., Richards, M., Brooker, H. J., & Corbett, A. (2024) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.6061 · Cited by 19
Alzheimer's Disease - A Comprehensive Review
Woźniak, K., Gardian-Baj, M., Jung, M., Hedesz, P., Jung, M., Żuk‐Łapan, A., Doryń, A., Jędral, K., Włodarczyk, A., Szczerbiak, A., et al. (2024) · Journal of Education Health and Sport · doi:10.12775/jehs.2024.56.013 · Cited by 21
Qu, Y., Meng, B., Cai, S., Yang, B., He, Y., Fu, C., Li, X., Li, P., Cao, Z., Mao, X., et al. (2024) · Journal of Nanobiotechnology · doi:10.1186/s12951-024-02820-x · Cited by 22
“Aging is characterized by the gradual loss of physiological integrity, organs dysfunction, tissue loss of homeostasis and reduced regenerative capacity [31, 32].”
BackgroundNormatization of the Symbol Digit Modalities Test-Oral Version in a Latin American Country
Vanotti, S., Cores, E. V., Eizaguirre, M. B., Merino, Á., Rey, R. C., Villa, A. M., & Cáceres, F. (2014) · Applied Neuropsychology Adult · doi:10.1080/23279095.2013.831866 · Cited by 18
“In addition, a high education is generally associated with a rich environment and participation in intellectual activities, all of which represent a general high cognitive reserve (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundOsone, A., Arai, R., Hakamada, R., & Shimoda, K. (2016) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2016.1191620 · Cited by 16
“capacity to continue to function at a “normal” level despite subsequent neuropathology (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundIkanga, J. N., Hill, E. M., & MacDonald, D. A. (2017) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2016.1201462 · Cited by 15
“…indicators multiple causes models; Reflective models The hypothetical construct of reserve has been used to help explain individual differences in risk for, and patterns of, cognitive deficits and decline related to neuropathological changes (Jones et al., 2011; Stern, 2002, 2006, 2009, 2012).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialDelirium in elderly patients: association with educational attainment
Martins, S., Paiva, J., Simões, M., & Fernandes, L. (2016) · Acta Neuropsychiatrica · doi:10.1017/neu.2016.40 · Cited by 16
“Differences in cognitive reserve have been explained as a result of mental stimulation that individuals are exposed to over a lifetime, including educational attainment, complex occupational performance, premorbid intelligence or participation in cognitive and stimulating leisure activities (11,19,20).”
BackgroundWęgiel, J., Flory, M. J., Kuchna, I., Nowicki, K., Ma, S. Y., Wegiel, J., Badmajew, E., Silverman, W. P., de Leon, M. J., Reisberg, ., et al. (2017) · Journal of Neuropathology & Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1093/jnen/nlx027 · Cited by 18
Ashokan, A., Lim, J., Han, N. H. B., & Mitra, R. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-25399-4 · Cited by 18
“011) and their interaction with the Sholl profile (F(27,351) = 2.”
BackgroundImprovement in cognitive performance and mood in healthy older adults: a multimodal approach
Piccirilli, M., Pigliautile, M., Arcelli, P., Baratta, I., & Ferretti, S. (2019) · European Journal of Ageing · doi:10.1007/s10433-019-00503-3 · Cited by 21
“…and Language Therapy, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy 4 Speech and Language Therapist, USL Umbria 1, Perugia, Italy 1 3 disease, has been introduced (Stern 2012): a brain reserve would be available in relation to the structural characteristics of the individual’s nervous system…”
BackgroundLanger, K. G., O’Shea, D. M., Wit, L. D., DeFeis, B. L., Mejia, A., Amofa, P., Chandler, M. J., Locke, D. E. C., Fields, J. A., Phatak, V. S., et al. (2019) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-181020 · Cited by 18
Korologou‐Linden, R., Anderson, E. L., Jones, H. J., Smith, G. D., Howe, L. D., & Stergiakouli, E. (2019) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyz080 · Cited by 16
Jia, Q. F., Chen, P., Zhu, H. L., Chen, S. S., Gu, X. C., Yin, X. Y., Yan, W., Yin, G., & Hui, L. (2019) · Psychiatric Quarterly · doi:10.1007/s11126-019-09641-4 · Cited by 19
Mahady, L. J., He, B., Malek‐Ahmadi, M. H., & Mufson, E. J. (2020) · Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology · doi:10.1111/nan.12672 · Cited by 18
Fischer, F. U., Wolf, D. G. F., Tüscher, O., Fellgiebel, A., & Initiative, O. B. O. A. D. N. (2021) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.637002 · Cited by 18
“Interestingly, intelligence is also a known resilience factor to cognitive decline (Schmand et al., 1997; Whalley et al., 2004; Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundO’Brien, C., & Holtzer, R. (2021) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/glab178 · Cited by 18
Heneghan, A., Deng, F., Wells, K., Ritchie, K., Muniz-Terrera, G., Ritchie, C. W., Lawlor, B., & Naci, L. (2023) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-220267 · Cited by 18
Richter, A., Soch, J., Kizilirmak, J. M., Fischer, L., Schütze, H., Assmann, A., Behnisch, G., Feldhoff, H., Knopf, L., Raschick, M., et al. (2023) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.26281 · Cited by 15
“Especially early lifestyle interventions, tackling physical exercise, nutrition, and to some degree cognitively demanding tasks, can be helpful to preserve healthy aging (Bishop et al., 2010; Franke & Gaser, 2019; Stern, 2012; Whitty et al., 2020).”
BackgroundThomas, R. G., Albert, M., Petersen, R. C., & Aisen, P. S. S. (2016) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2016.01.002 · Cited by 18
“Thus, individuals with more education have more severe pathology at any given baseline MMSE scores (consistent with the hypothesis that cognitive reserve, enhanced by education, reduces the cognitive impact of the neuropathology [23]).”
BackgroundAlzheimer’s Disease in Physicians — Assessing Professional Competence and Tempering Stigma
Devi, G. (2018) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmp1716381 · Cited by 18
White matter degeneration profile in the cognitive cortico‐subcortical tracts in Parkinson's disease
Hanganu, A., Houde, J., Fonov, V., Degroot, C., Mejia‐Constain, B., Lafontaine, A., Soland, V., Chouinard, S., Collins, D. L., Descoteaux, M., et al. (2018) · Movement Disorders · doi:10.1002/mds.27364 · Cited by 15
Bajaj, S., Dailey, N. S., Rosso, I. M., Rauch, S. L., & Killgore, W. D. S. (2018) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.23951 · Cited by 18
“One possible explanation may involve the construct of “cognitive reserve,” or the ability to maintain cognitive functioning in the presence of brain damage or degenerative process (Stern, 2009, 2012).”
BackgroundWu, J., Hasselgren, C., Zettergren, A., Zetterberg, H., Blennow, K., Skoog, I., & Halleröd, B. (2020) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2018.1531368 · Cited by 18
“Second, in line with the cognitive reserve hypothesis, the intellectual stimulation provided by social interaction is thought to impede degenerative brain changes by improving resilience and compensatory abilities in the neuronal networks (Kuiper et al., 2015; Stern, 2002, 2012).”
BackgroundBeyer, L., Schnabel, J., Kazmierczak, P. M., Ewers, M., Schönecker, S., Prix, C., Meyer-Wilmes, J., Unterrainer, M., Catak, C., Pogarell, O. M., et al. (2019) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2019.101949 · Cited by 18
Capogna, E., Manca, R., Marco, M. D., Hall, A., Soininen, H. S., & Venneri, A. (2019) · Postgraduate Medicine · doi:10.1080/00325481.2019.1663127 · Cited by 17
“Indeed, despite the ongoing progressive pathology, high cognitive reserve might preserve cognitive functioning by optimizing the use of brain networks, characterized by greater efficiency or capacity, or by fostering compensatory mechanisms [18].”
BackgroundCarmel, S., & Tur‐Sinai, A. (2021) · Ageing and Society · doi:10.1017/s0144686x21000064 · Cited by 18
“Stern (2012) suggests that higher levels of education and lifelong experience in occupational attainments and/or intensive leisure activities provide a greater cognitive reserve, which in turn increases tolerance to pathology and enables ageing people to be more resilient to degenerative brain…”
BackgroundInfluentialBaciu, M., & Roger, É. (2024) · Topics in Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/tops.12736 · Cited by 20
Estarellas, M., Oxtoby, N. P., Schott, J. M., Alexander, D. C., & Young, A. L. (2024) · Brain Communications · doi:10.1093/braincomms/fcae219 · Cited by 27
“48,49 The literature on the rate of decline of cognition in Alzheimer’s disease subtypes is inconclusive, 4 with some studies suggesting that typical Alzheimer’s disease has the fastest rates of decline 39,40 and others suggesting that hippocampal-sparing Alzheimer’s disease has the fastest rates…”
ResultA lifespan perspective on cognitive reserve and risk for dementia
Kremen, W. S., Ericsson, M., Gatz, M., Karlsson, I., Nygaard, M., Pedersen, N. L., & Panizzon, M. S. (2025) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.70176 · Cited by 19
Mild cognitive impairment and neuropsychological examination
Hessen, E. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1662151 · Cited by 20
“Individuals with high brain reserve and cognitive reserve (Stern, 2012) are more resistant to both brain and cognitive changes, and can have good cognitive performance even with underlying brain pathology.”
Matyas, N., Auer, S., Gisinger, C., Kil, M., Aschenberger, F. K., Klerings, I., & Gartlehner, G. (2017) · Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1186/s13643-017-0553-0 · Cited by 17
“sults underpin a theory called the “cognitive reserve hypothesis” [19, 20].”
BackgroundCognitive reserve protects language functions in patients with brain tumours
Campanella, F., Arcara, G., Crescentini, C., Fabbro, F., & Škrap, M. (2021) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2021.107769 · Cited by 17
Xu, W., Initiative, A. D. N., Tan, C., Zou, J., Cao, X., & Tan, L. (2021) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-201582 · Cited by 19
Ayesa‐Arriola, R., de la Foz, V. O., Murillo‐García, N., Vázquez-Bourgón, J., Juncal‐Ruíz, M., Gómez‐Revuelta, M., Suárez‐Pinilla, P., Setién‐Suero, E., & Crespo‐Facorro, B. (2021) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291721003536 · Cited by 17
“Cognitive reserve (CR) refers to individual differences in task performance that may allow some people to be more resilient than others with respect to coping with brain pathology (Stern, 2012).”
Holtzer, R., Ross, D., O’Brien, C., İzzetoğlu, M., & Wagshul, M. E. (2021) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/glab288 · Cited by 19
Chen, H., Zhu, H., Huang, L., Chen, H., Liu, R., Qin, R., Shao, P., Xu, H., Ma, J., Cheng, Y., et al. (2022) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2022.113831 · Cited by 21
“People with higher CR are thought to be able to activate functional brain networks more strongly, utilize existing networks more efficiently, and recruit alternate networks to mitigate the damaging effect of brain pathology or brain aging [13,14].”
Chen, S.-D., Zhang, W., Li, Y., Liu, Y., Huang, Y., Deng, Y., Wu, B., Suckling, J., Rolls, E. T., Feng, J., et al. (2022) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2022.08.002 · Cited by 18
“The longstanding evidence from the literature has validated that higher education and better cognitive function are associated with lower risks of developing AD (29,30).”
BackgroundWang, H., Ge, W., Zhu, C., Sun, Y., & Wei, S. (2022) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-022-00944-z · Cited by 20
“Batouli [32] believes that there may be two mechanisms to improve the cognitive ability: one is that physical exercise participates in the neural circuit of cognitive function [29]; the other is that physical exercise increases “cerebrovascular reserve” [33].”
BackgroundMohanty, M., & Kumar, P. (2022) · Geriatrics · doi:10.3390/geriatrics8010004 · Cited by 19
“Besides, it has been widely acknowledged that people with SCD have better access to cognitive reserve and also exhibit considerably preserved current cognitive function [18].”
BackgroundMeasures of cognitive reserve: An umbrella review
Pinto, J. O., Peixoto, B., Dores, A. R., & Barbosa, F. (2023) · The Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1080/13854046.2023.2200978 · Cited by 17
Leone, P., Arenas, Y. M., Balzano, T., Mincheva, G., Martínez-García, M., Montoliu, C., Llansola, M., & Felipo, V. (2023) · European Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1111/ene.15935 · Cited by 19
Kim, H., Zhu, X., Zhao, Y., Bell, S. A., Gehrman, P., Cohen, D., Devanand, D. P., Goldberg, T. E., Lee, S., & Initiative, A. D. N. (2023) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-023-02214-9 · Cited by 18
“This phenomenon is thought to re fl ect the earliest manifestation of cognitive reserve, the brain ’ s effort to compensate for emerging pathological process [69].”
Clemente, L., Gasparre, D., Alfeo, F., Battista, F., Abbatantuono, C., Curci, A., Lanciano, T., & Taurisano, P. (2023) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci13101356 · Cited by 17
“This may indicate the compensatory capacity of cognitive reserve [64], which refers to the brain’s capacity to compensate for challenges and maintain cognitive functions through its structure or broader neural networks.”
BackgroundFeng, W., Chen, Q., Ma, M., Xu, J., Guo, H., Yuan, W., Li, R., Gao, H., Gu, C., Ma, Y., et al. (2023) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-023-04376-1 · Cited by 17
“"Cognitive reserve" [40] describes the capacity of the brain’s effectiveness and plasticity to buffer the disabling effects of neuropathology, allowing individuals to cope successfully with brain pathology.”
BackgroundKobayashi, L. C., O’Shea, B. Q., Wixom, C. R., Jones, R. N., Langa, K. M., Weir, D. R., Lee, J., Wong, R., & Gross, A. L. (2023) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.13665 · Cited by 18
Tang, F., Li, K., Wang, Y., Zhu, Y., & Jiang, Y. (2024) · Innovation in Aging · doi:10.1093/geroni/igae009 · Cited by 18
“…individuals who feel lonely are less likely to engage in intel-lectually stimulating activities, limiting the tolerance and recovery of neural networks from damages, and resulting in lower cognitive reserve and diminished cognitive functioning (Okamoto & Kobayashi, 2021; Stern, 2002, 2012).”
BackgroundBalsamo, F., Berretta, E., Meneo, D., Baglioni, C., & Gelfo, F. (2024) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci14070654 · Cited by 17
“This applies not only to neurodegenerative or age-related disorders [8] but also to other clinical conditions such as sleep disruption or diseases [75].”
BackgroundMapping cerebellar anatomical heterogeneity in mental and neurological illnesses
Kim, M., Leonardsen, E. H., Rutherford, S. E., Selbæk, G., Persson, K., Steen, N. E., Smeland, O. B., Ueland, T., Richard, G., Beckmann, C. F., et al. (2024) · Nature Mental Health · doi:10.1038/s44220-024-00297-z · Cited by 16
“Participants who had withdrawn from the studies or had missing demographic information and T1-weighted MRI data were excluded from the analyses.”
Sundgren, M., Wåhlin, Å., Maurex, L., & Brismar, T. (2015) · Journal of the Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jns.2015.06.025 · Cited by 17
“Higher levels of premorbid verbal intelligence and educational attainment are associated with a slower deterioration in AD [11].”
BackgroundO’Shea, D. M., Fieo, R. A., Woods, A. J., Williamson, J. B., Porges, E. C., & Cohen, R. A. (2018) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2018.1452195 · Cited by 17
“Individuals with greater cognitive reserve are able to cope better cognitively with underlying disease pathology related to Alzheimer’s disease (AD), for example (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundBeijing Aging Brain Rejuvenation Initiative: aging with grace
Wang, Y., Chen, K., Yang, C., Fang, W., Wang, X. B., QingShan, W. A. N. G., Li, X., Zhang, Z., Zhang, W., Li, H., et al. (2018) · Scientia Sinica Vitae · doi:10.1360/n052018-00106 · Cited by 13
Day, G. S., Cruchaga, C., Wingo, T. S., Schindler, S. E., Coble, D. W., & Morris, J. C. (2019) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.13491 · Cited by 17
Elias, A., Cummins, T. L., Lamb, F., Tyrrell, R., Doré, V., Williams, R., Rosenfeld, J. V., Hopwood, M., Villemagne, V. L., & Rowe, C. C. (2019) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-190913 · Cited by 17
Right-lateralized fronto-parietal network and phasic alertness in healthy aging
Haupt, M., Ruiz‐Rizzo, A. L., Sorg, C., & Finke, K. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-61844-z · Cited by 17
Sleep Mediates Age-Related Executive Function for Older Adults with Limited Cognitive Reserve
Parker, D. J., Bucks, R. S., Rainey‐Smith, S. R., Hodgson, E., Fine, L., Sohrabi, H. R., Martins, R. N., & Weinborn, M. (2020) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617720001186 · Cited by 17
Associations and correlates of general versus specific successful ageing components
Thoma, M. V., Kleineidam, L., Forstmeier, S., Maercker, A. R. A., Weyerer, S. B., Eisele, M., van den Bussche, H., König, H., Röhr, S., Stein, J., et al. (2020) · European Journal of Ageing · doi:10.1007/s10433-020-00593-4 · Cited by 19
“2012; Stern 2012), have shown vast similarities to identified predictors of SA (e.g. education, SES, physical activity).”
BackgroundInfluentialFonseca, L. M., Mattar, G. P., Haddad, G. G., Burduli, E., McPherson, S., Guilhoto, L. M. D. F. F., Yassuda, M. S., Busatto, G. F., Bottino, C. M. D. C., Hoexter, M. Q., et al. (2021) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-201009 · Cited by 17
“Nevertheless, the fact that in our findings, surprisingly, participants with a higher degree of pre-morbid intellectual impairment were more frequently classified in the prodromal and dementia groups, raises hypotheses about the influence of cognitive reserve on the subsequent development of dementia in this populatio…”
ResultMotor reserve: How to build neuronal resilience against ageing and neurodegeneration?
Bastos, P. A. D., & Barbosa, R. P. (2022) · Revue Neurologique · doi:10.1016/j.neurol.2021.12.012 · Cited by 17
Hoffman, P., & MacPherson, S. E. (2022) · Journal of Neuropsychology · doi:10.1111/jnp.12279 · Cited by 15
“The findings in our older group may also be driven by compensatory (cognitive reserve) abilities that go beyond any effects of age on semantic knowledge (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundSchmidt, C., Becker, H., & Zerr, I. (2013) · American Journal of Alzheimer s Disease & Other Dementias® · doi:10.1177/1533317513505133 · Cited by 17
“The paradigm of cognitive reserve must be mentioned in this context.(37) Moreover, the preprogression time(24) is predictive of cognitive function; it is the nature of neurodegenerative diseases to progress over time.”
BackgroundBilingual benefits in education and health
Spitzer, M. (2016) · Trends in Neuroscience and Education · doi:10.1016/j.tine.2016.07.004 · Cited by 27
White matter abnormalities and cognition in patients with conflicting diagnoses and CSF profiles
Lindemer, E., Greve, D. N., Fischl, B. R., Salat, D. H., & Gómez‐Isla, T. (2018) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000005353 · Cited by 16
Philippou, E., Michaelides, M. P., & Constantinidou, F. (2018) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2018.1483487 · Cited by 16
“These support well-established associations of age and cognition (Park & Reuter-Lorenz, 2009; Reuter-Lorenz & Park, 2014) as well as of the cognitive reserve hypothesis (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundMilanini, B., Allen, I. E., Paul, R. H., Bahemana, E., Kiweewa, F., Nambuya, A., Maswai, J. K., Langat, R., Owuoth, J., Martin, S., et al. (2020) · JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes · doi:10.1097/qai.0000000000002242 · Cited by 18
Cho, H., Kim, Y.-E., Chae, W., Kim, K. W., Kim, J., Kim, H. J., Na, D. L., Ki, C., & Seo, S. W. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-69603-w · Cited by 19
Cognitive reserve and neuropsychiatric disorders
Watson, A., & Joyce, E. M. (2015) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2015.05.003 · Cited by 18
“Zahodne LB, Manly JJ, Brickman AM, Siedlecki KL, Decarli C, Stern Y: Quantifying cognitive reserve in older adults by decomposing episodic memory variance: replication and extension.”
InfluentialWagner, M., Wolfsgruber, S., Gaertner, B., Kleineidam, L., Buttery, A. K., Jacobi, F., der Elst, W. V., Jolles, J., Hapke, U., Wïttchen, H., et al. (2017) · International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1002/mpr.1594 · Cited by 15
“It is well established that people with higher education experience clinically and functionally significant cognitive impairment (i.e., dementia) much later in their lives (Stern, 2012; Valenzuela & Sachdev, 2006a, 2006b).”
BackgroundAge-Modulated Associations between KIBRA, Brain Volume, and Verbal Memory among Healthy Older Adults
Stickel, A., Kawa, K., Walther, K., Glisky, E., Richholt, R., Huentelman, M., & Ryan, L. (2018) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2017.00431 · Cited by 16
“…on many factors associated with cognitive function and/or brain volume, including age (Hedman et al., 2012), education (Tucker and Stern, 2011; Stern, 2012), gender (Resnick et al., 2000; Jack et al., 2015), hypertensive status (Beauchet et al., 2013), and APOE ε4 status (Taylor et al.,…”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Stern, Y.
- Affiliations
- Columbia University Irving Medical Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Stern, Yaakov
- ORCID
- Stern, Yaakov
- Venue
- The Lancet Neurology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-11
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 1006-1012
- ISSN
- 1474-4422 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3507991
- OpenAlex
- W2144907160
- Cited by
- 3,557
- References
- 59
- Citations by year
- 2026: 412 · 2025: 352 · 2024: 311 · 2023: 343 · 2022: 281 · 2021: 303 · 2020: 350 · 2019: 292 · 2018: 244 · 2017: 213 · 2016: 176 · 2015: 125 · 2014: 93 · 2013: 58 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 12.06
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- The Lancet Neurology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Columbia Academic Commons (Columbia University)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (R01AG026158, R01AG014671)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Alzheimer's disease research and treatments
- Keywords
- cognitive reserve, brain reserve, Alzheimer's disease, cognitive aging, dementia risk, educational attainment, occupational attainment, leisure
- MeSH terms
- Aging, Alzheimer Disease, Animals, Humans, Cognitive Reserve
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-09-29, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-09-29 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
