The DOI matches its Crossref record; 59 of the 59 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 29 of the 54 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease
Open accessAbstract
The concept of cognitive reserve provides an explanation for differences between individuals in susceptibility to age-related brain changes or pathology related to Alzheimer's disease, whereby some people can tolerate more of these changes than others and maintain function. Epidemiological studies suggest that lifelong experiences, including educational and occupational attainment, and leisure activities in later life, can increase this reserve. For example, the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease is reduced in individuals with higher educational or occupational attainment. Reserve can conveniently be divided into two types: brain reserve, which refers to differences in the brain structure that may increase tolerance to pathology, and cognitive reserve, which refers to differences between individuals in how tasks are performed that might enable some people to be more resilient to brain changes than others. Greater understanding of the concept of cognitive reserve could lead to interventions to slow cognitive ageing or reduce the risk of dementia.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review argues that cognitive reserve explains why people differ in how much Alzheimer’s disease pathology or age-related brain change they can tolerate while still functioning. It synthesizes epidemiologic, neuroimaging, postmortem, and intervention evidence, and concludes that reserve is modifiable but that causal interventions remain unproven.
Key findings
- Reserve is split into brain reserve, a more passive quantitative tolerance tied to brain size or neurons/synapses, and cognitive reserve, an active functional process in which pre-existing or compensatory networks help cope with damage.
- Epidemiologic studies cited found that fewer than 8 years of education carried 2.2 times higher dementia risk, low occupational attainment carried 2.25 times higher risk, and greater leisure activity was linked to 38% lower risk; a review of 22 cohort studies estimated higher reserve reduced dementia risk by 46%.
- After Alzheimer’s disease becomes clinically apparent, higher reserve is associated with faster decline: memory scores fell about one point yearly on average, with an additional point yearly in those with higher education or occupation.
- Imaging and autopsy evidence indicated that at matched clinical severity, higher education was linked to greater parietotemporal blood-flow deficit and, in 130 elders, each additional year of education reduced the pathology–cognition association by 0.088 standard units; fMRI work distinguished neural reserve from neural compensation.
Methods
- Narrative review by the author, integrating his group’s and others’ epidemiologic cohort studies, functional and resting neuroimaging studies, postmortem analyses, and cognitive or exercise intervention trials.
- Cited samples include 593 non-demented adults aged 60 or older followed for 4 years, 130 elders who had cognitive evaluation before autopsy, and a preliminary 90-person older-adult Space Fortress training study.
- Main analysis is conceptual synthesis rather than a new primary study or formal meta-analysis; it draws on a cited systematic review of 22 cohort studies for one pooled estimate.
Limitations
- Stated: epidemiologic evidence is correlational and cannot establish causation; controlled intervention studies are needed, and no study to date has shown changes in the key endpoints of slowed cognitive decline or reduced Alzheimer’s disease risk.
- Stated: clinical use of biomarkers and imaging for reserve is premature because prognostic implications are not fully established, and cognitive training evidence is mixed.
- Evident from the text: this is a narrative review without formal risk-of-bias assessment, many findings come from the author’s own research program, and the interaction between brain reserve and cognitive reserve remains unresolved.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Claims the paper makes
39 Own interpretation · 14 No full text of the sources · 12 No basis given · 10 Supported · 10 Own result · 8 Partly supported · 5 Supported so far · 3 Not checked yet · 2 Couldn’t confirm · 1 Sources not found · accuracy not yet measured
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“This idea is supported by a set of studies that suggest that prevalence or incidence of dementia is lower in individuals with larger brains13, 14.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [13] Katzman, 1988, Clinical, pathological, and neurochemical changes in dementia: a subgroup with preserved mental status and numerous neocortical plaques, Ann Neurol source
- Supportedcites [14] Schofield, 1997, An association between head circumference and Alzheimer's disease in a population-based study of aging, Neurology source
The Discussion (p. 5) reports that smaller head circumference was associated with higher prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease. The paper uses head circumference as an index of premorbid brain size (p. 1), so its finding supports the citing sentence’s hedged association. This study measured prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease, not incidence of dementia generally. (LLM, conf=0.88)
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Second, compared to individuals with lower CR, those with higher CR performed better even when they use the second network.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [42] Steffener, 2011, Supporting performance in the face of age-related neural changes: testing mechanistic roles of cognitive reserve, Brain Imaging Behav source
The Results (Model C) report that, in older adults, higher cognitive reserve reduced the negative effect of network 2 expression on task performance. The Discussion likewise says older adults with greater reserve maintained performance better as network 2 expression increased. (LLM, conf=0.88)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those who engaged in more leisure activities had 38% less risk of developing dementia.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [24] Scarmeas, 2001, Influence of leisure activity on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease, Neurology source
The Discussion explicitly states that subjects with high leisure activity had 38% less risk of developing dementia. The Results report a relative risk of 0.62 (95% CI 0.46–0.83), consistent with that figure. (LLM, conf=0.95)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“The rate of decline is more rapid in individuals with high reserve than those with low reserve, even when accounting for a multitude of other factors that may contribute to disease course27, 28, 46.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [27] Stern, 1999, Rate of memory decline in AD is related to education and occupation: cognitive reserve?, Neurology sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The DOI was not indexed for paper-scoped Semantic Scholar search, so the cited paper’s full text could not be checked directly. A systematic review, “Education and Dementia in the Context of the Cognitive Reserve Hypothesis” (search score 0.789), explicitly attributes more rapid memory decline in Alzheimer’s patients with higher education and occupational attainment to Stern et al. (1999). This supports the central claim, though the retrieved passage does not verify which other factors the original analysis accounted for. (LLM, conf=0.81)
- Supportedcites [28] Scarmeas, 2006, Education and rates of cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer's disease, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
No paper-scoped Semantic Scholar snippets were available for Scarmeas et al. (2006). However, “Higher education affects accelerated cortical thinning in Alzheimer's disease” explicitly cites Scarmeas et al. (2006) among studies finding more rapid cognitive decline after Alzheimer’s onset in patients with higher education (snippet score 0.534). This supports the claim through a secondary citation, although the available evidence does not independently verify which other factors Scarmeas et al. adjusted for. (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Supportedcites [46] Hall, 2007, Education delays accelerated decline on a memory test in persons who develop dementia, Neurology sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Hall’s (2007) title establishes the finding of delayed accelerated memory decline in people who develop dementia. A Semantic Scholar snippet from “Episodic memory performance in a multi-ethnic longitudinal study of 13,037 elderly” describes the same pattern: education is associated with a delayed change point followed by faster decline (score 0.52). Hall’s full text was unavailable in the paper-scoped search, so the specific assertion about accounting for other factors could not be checked directly; the available evidence supports the core paraphrase, not every qualification. (LLM, conf=0.72)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“In a young group of subjects we identified an activation network that was expressed during the stimulus presentation phase of both tasks and whose increase in expression with increasing load correlated with CR.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [43] Stern, 2008, A common neural network for cognitive reserve in verbal and object working memory in young but not old, Cereb Cortex source
The Discussion identifies a pattern in young subjects during stimulus presentation whose load-related activation had a similar relationship with cognitive reserve in both the letter and shape tasks. The Canonical Variates Analysis reports significant expression of that pattern in both tasks and relates its load-related expression to cognitive-reserve scores. (LLM, conf=0.91)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Similar analysis demonstrated a comparable protective effect of occupational attainment33 and leisure activities34.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [33] Stern, 1995, Relationship between lifetime occupation and parietal flow: implications for a reserve against Alzheimer's disease pathology, Neurology source
- Supportedcites [34] Scarmeas, 2003, Association of life activities with cerebral blood flow in Alzheimer disease: implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis, Arch Neurol source
The cited paper’s Results report an inverse association between activity scores and cerebral blood flow after controlling for clinical severity, which the authors interpret as consistent with cognitive reserve. The Conclusions describe analogous findings for occupational attainment and note evidence linking leisure activities to reduced dementia risk. The citation supports the leisure-activities part of the sentence; occupational attainment has a separate citation. (LLM, conf=0.85)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“For example, at a given level of clinical severity, AD patients with higher education have a more severe pattern of AD-related changes on PET scan than those with lower education44, 45.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [44] Garibotto, 2008, Education and occupation as proxies for reserve in aMCI converters and AD: FDG-PET evidence, Neurology source
- Supportedcites [45] Kemppainen, 2008, Cognitive reserve hypothesis: Pittsburgh Compound B and fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in relation to education in mild Alzheimer's disease, Ann Neurol source
The Abstract reports that high- and low-educated patients with mild Alzheimer’s disease had the same degree of cognitive deterioration, while the high-educated group showed greater amyloid-tracer uptake and lower glucose metabolism on PET. The Discussion likewise describes more pronounced amyloid accumulation and neuronal dysfunction in the high-educated group. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“In AD patients matched for clinical severity, we found an inverse relationship between resting rCBF and years of education32.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [32] Stern, 1992, Inverse relationship between education and parietotemporal perfusion deficit in Alzheimer's disease, Ann Neurol source
The Procedures (p. 2) state that rCBF was measured under resting conditions. The Results (pp. 2–3) report greater parietotemporal flow reductions with more education in AD groups that did not differ on clinical measures; the relationship at the P3 detector remained significant after controlling for dementia severity. (LLM, conf=0.92)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“The neural implementation of CR might take two forms: neural reserve and neural compensation16, 38.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [16] Stern, 2009, Cognitive reserve, Neuropsychologia source
In “Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR,” Stern explicitly says that the neural implementation of cognitive reserve might take two forms: neural reserve and neural compensation. The “Brain Reserve and Cognitive Reserve” section also describes them as two proposed components. (LLM, conf=0.95)
- Supportedcites [38] Stern, 2005, Brain networks associated with cognitive reserve in healthy young and old adults, Cereb Cortex source
The Introduction (p. 1) explicitly proposes two complementary facets of the neural implementation of cognitive reserve: neural reserve and neural compensation. The paper then defines and contrasts them in the Introduction (pp. 1–2). (LLM, conf=0.95)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“These observations using cerebral blood flow have been replicated by other groups as well35, 36.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [35] Alexander, 1997, Association of premorbid intellectual function with cerebral metabolism in Alzheimer's disease: implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis, Am J Psychiatry source
- Supportedcites [36] Perneczky, 2006, Schooling mediates brain reserve in Alzheimer's disease: findings of fluoro-deoxy-glucose-positron emission tomography, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry source
The Results report an inverse association between schooling and glucose metabolism in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. The Discussion says these findings are supported by other groups’ cerebral-blood-flow studies, while noting that the results do not match exactly because of differences in samples and methods. This paper used FDG-PET rather than measuring cerebral blood flow itself. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 15
- It may state two separate claims as one. 17
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“In contrast, the concept of CR suggests that the brain actively attempts to cope with brain damage by using pre-existing cognitive processing approaches or by enlisting compensatory approaches15, 16.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [15] Stern, 2002, What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept, J Int Neuropsychol Soc source
- Supportedcites [16] Stern, 2009, Cognitive reserve, Neuropsychologia source
The “Brain Reserve and Cognitive Reserve” section states that active models such as CR propose that the brain copes with damage using pre-existing cognitive processes or enlisting compensatory processes. This directly supports the paraphrase; no page number is provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.95)
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“We replicated this observation in patients with incident AD28 and also found more rapid decline in cognitive function in AD patients who engaged in more leisure activities prior to dementia onset29.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [28] Scarmeas, 2006, Education and rates of cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer's disease, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
- Supportedcites [29] Helzner, 2007, Leisure activity and cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer disease, Arch Neurol source
Split into 2 atoms — 2 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Using a covariance method to analyze the imaging data, we identified a spatial pattern of fMRI activation that was expressed by both groups and whose expression increased as the task became more difficult.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [39] Stern, 2012, Task difficulty modulates young-old differences in network expression, Brain Res source
The Functional imaging section identifies a spatial pattern common to young and old participants. The Discussion states that its expression increased logarithmically with task difficulty. Page numbers are not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In a follow-up analysis41, we found that atrophy in a key area within the first network (i.e. the one that was used by both young and old) was associated with decreased efficiency in that network and increased utilization of the second network.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [41] Steffener, 2009, The impact of age-related changes on working memory functional activity, Brain Imaging Behav sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Conclusion report that lower grey-matter volume in a region of the primary network was associated with greater secondary-network recruitment. The Discussion interprets this as compensation for an affected primary network, but the Results report no significant association between regional grey-matter volume and primary-network expression; decreased efficiency of that network was not demonstrated. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“For example, Basak et al.50 had elders play a complex role-playing game,”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [50] Basak, 2008, Can training in a real-time strategy video game attenuate cognitive decline in older adults?, Psychol Aging sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Method > Participants section says older adults were assigned to play Rise of Nations, and the General Discussion reports transfer benefits after 23.5 hours of training. The paper identifies Rise of Nations as a complex real-time strategy game, not a role-playing game. Its Abstract reports improvement on a subset of cognitive tasks, rather than across the entire battery (page numbers unavailable in our copy). (LLM, conf=0.90)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In research with young adults, one particular training approach produced excellent improvement in gameplay, but, more importantly, also showed transfer of training to other tasks.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [55] Gopher, 1994, Transfer of skill from a computer game trainer to flight, Hum Factors source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [56] Gopher, 1989, Practice under changing priorities: an approach to the training of complex skills, Acta Psychol source
- Partly supportedcites [57] Blumen, 2010, Training cognitive control in older adults with the space fortress game: the role of training instructions and basic motor ability, Front Aging Neurosci sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction (‘The space fortress game and emphasis change instructions’; page unavailable) reports that emphasis-change instructions improved Space Fortress performance in younger adults compared with standard instructions. It says those instructions *may* be important for transfer, but does not report that this approach demonstrated transfer to other tasks. The General Discussion (page unavailable) says future studies will determine whether such transfer occurs. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Those who rely more on this alternate network can still perform the task, but do so more poorly.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On the average scores on a memory test decline by about one point yearly, but in those with higher educational or occupational attainment scores decline by an additional point each year.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The first network was used by both young and old subjects, and consisted of areas often associated with working memory.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, the second network was primarily characterized by activation in parahippocampal areas and was used consistently only by the older subjects.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Interestingly, although the game itself was very challenging for the elders, there were few dropouts and performance improved over time.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [58] Orrell, 1995, Education and dementia, BMJ source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Interestingly, although the game itself was very challenging for the elders, there were few dropouts and performance improved over time.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [58] Orrell, 1995, Education and dementia, BMJ source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Each of these networks is a group of brain areas that seem to work together as the task is harder.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given these assumptions, individuals with higher CR will begin their cognitive decline when pathology is more advanced and thus have less time until they reach the point where pathology overwhelms function.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: There is a common point in all people where pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Still, while in some ways interdependent, brain reserve and CR make independent in addition to synergistic contributions to understanding individual differences in clinical resilience to brain pathology.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the cognitive or neural mechanism that underlies this reserve is unknown.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, clinicians must be aware that in the presence of pathology there should still be a period of time during which even the most sensitive measures would fail to detect cognitive change.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Individuals with high reserve, by definition, will not demonstrate disease-related clinical symptoms as early as individuals with low levels of reserve.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Since people with greater reserve should be able to tolerate more AD pathology, the onset of clinical dementia should be delayed.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaindirectn = 593- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“It is possible that individuals with more efficient or higher capacity networks could have more resilience in the face of age- or disease-related changes.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
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In the paper
“Only controlled studies can truly establish that some set of interventions or experiences are beneficial.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In schizophrenia, small effects of cognitive remediation were noted, particularly in stable patients and when combined with adjunctive rehabilitation52.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [52]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
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In the paper
“While the original observations concern easily measurable variables like education or occupational attainment, more recent studies have delved more deeply into lifestyle factors, cognitively stimulating behaviors, personality factors and the like.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
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In the paper
“However, the exact”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“These findings support the possibility that it may be possible to intervene even later in life in order to impart reserve, slow age-related cognitive decline, and prolonged healthy aging.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“This is a hopeful idea, since it suggests that changes in lifestyle even later in life might impart reserve against age-related cognitive decline or dementia.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Similarly, focused training has improved working memory capacity and shown transfer of training to nontrained working memory tasks51.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [51] Klingberg, 2010, Training and plasticity of working memory, Trends Cogn Sci source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Studies using these endpoints will be very expensive because they will require a large number of participants and will have to be conducted over several years.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While epidemiologic studies can only describe correlations and do not directly test causation, they are useful for deriving hypotheses and exploring ideas.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By shifting emphasis from game to game, participants cannot fall into a fixed strategy. They must develop the ability to deal with the entire task as a whole – skills that might be termed attentional allocation or executive control.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Disease pathology slowly develops over time independently of cognitive reserve, and pathology begins many years before the onset of clinically diagnosed Alzheimer's disease.
“The assumption is that disease pathology slowly develops over time independently of CR, and that the pathology begins many years before the onset of clinically diagnosed AD.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
There is a common point in all people where pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.
“However, we reasoned that there is common point in all people where the pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.”
The paper relies on this without support.
No study to date has shown change in slowed rate of cognitive decline in aging or reduced risk of developing Alzheimer's disease.
“No study to date has shown change in either of these endpoints.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The brain both passively and actively attempts to cope with brain changes or pathology.
“Since the brain both passively and actively attempts to cope with brain changes or pathology, it is important to understand the factors that contribute to this resilience.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Researchers have long reported that people with more years of formal education are at lower risk for Alzheimer's and other dementias than those with fewer years of formal education.80,[144][145][146][147][148][149]”
From 2023 Alzheimer's disease facts and figures (2023) · cites this paper as [146]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“This concept was theoretically framed by Park and Bischof (2013) as “scaffolding,” similar to the closely related cognitive reserve theory proposed by Stern (2012).”
In the citing paper
“supporting the theory that a greater cognitive reserve could help protect against development of LOAD117.”
From Genetic meta-analysis of diagnosed Alzheimer’s disease identifies new risk loci and implicates Aβ, tau, immunity and lipid processing (2019) · cites this paper as [117]
In the citing paper
“The level of education, a surrogate marker of cognitive reserves (Stern, 2012), is an important determinant of the expression of VCI, such that for a given level of neuropathology higher education is associated with less cognitive deficits (Zieren et al., 2013).”
From The Pathobiology of Vascular Dementia (2013) · cites this paper as Stern, 2012
In the citing paper
“These findings lead to the suggestion that higher social engagement and support experienced both before and during lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic might have had a protective/mitigating role by contributing to cognitive (51) and affective reserve (52).”
From The impact of COVID-19 infection and enforced prolonged social isolation on neuropsychiatric symptoms in older adults with and without dementia: A review (2020) · cites this paper as [51]
In the citing paper
“Cognitive reserve theory suggests that individuals differ in their level of resilience against brain pathology and hence may exhibit differences in cognitive function despite equivalent levels of pathology (Stern, 2002(Stern, , 2012)).”
From Living alone and cognitive function in later life (2019) · cites this paper as Stern, 2012
In the citing paper
“The theory suggests that individuals differ in their degree of resilience against age-related brain pathology and hence may show differences in cognitive function in relation to an equivalent level of pathology [8, 9].”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
In the citing paper
“Cognitive reserve is a theoretical concept that may account for the role of social isolation and its association with cognitive outcomes in later life.”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
In the citing paper
“Such individuals are likely to receive less cognitive stimulation through social contact, resulting in lower cognitive reserve and hence poorer cognitive function [8, 9].”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
Citations
Cites
What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept
STERN, Y. (2002) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617702813248 · Cited by 3,951
Self-citationRunning increases cell proliferation and neurogenesis in the adult mouse dentate gyrus
van Praag, H., Kempermann, G., & Gage, F. H. (1999) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/6368 · Cited by 3,880
Stern, Y. (2009) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.03.004 · Cited by 2,943
Self-citationRunning enhances neurogenesis, learning, and long-term potentiation in mice
van Praag, H., Christie, B. R., Sejnowski, T. J., & Gage, F. H. (1999) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.96.23.13427 · Cited by 2,904
Neural consequences of enviromental enrichment
van Praag, H., Kempermann, G., & Gage, F. H. (2000) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/35044558 · Cited by 2,468
A Meta-Analysis of Cognitive Remediation for Schizophrenia: Methodology and Effect Sizes
Wykes, T., Huddy, V., Cellard, C., McGurk, S. R., & Czobor, P. (2011) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10060855 · Cited by 1,693
Training and plasticity of working memory
Klingberg, T. (2010) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2010.05.002 · Cited by 1,585
Influence of education and occupation on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease
Stern, Y. (1994) · JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association · doi:10.1001/jama.1994.03510370056032 · Cited by 1,434
Self-citationAgeing, fitness and neurocognitive function
Kramer, A. F., Hahn, S., Cohen, N. J., Banich, M. T., McAuley, E., Harrison, C. R., Chason, J., Vakil, E., Bardell, L., Boileau, R. A., et al. (1999) · Nature · doi:10.1038/22682 · Cited by 1,394
Katzman, R., Terry, R., DeTeresa, R., Brown, T., Davies, P., Fuld, P., Renbing, X., & Peck, A. (1988) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.410230206 · Cited by 1,225
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Gurland, 1981, The borderlands of dementia: the influence of sociocultural characteristics on rates of dementia occurring in the senium, Aging, 15, 61
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 1,001–1,100 of 3,537
Kumari, R., Nigam, A., & Pushkar, S. (2022) · Neural Computing and Applications · doi:10.1007/s00521-022-07076-w · Cited by 26
“Applying ADAS-Cog psychometric tests [22] and brain cognitive reserve capacity [23], modification of clinical symptoms is well presented.”
MethodCammisuli, D. M., Franzoni, F., Scarfò, G., Fusi, J., Gesi, M., Bonuccelli, U., Daniele, S., Martini, C., & Castelnuovo, G. (2022) · Biology · doi:10.3390/biology11050650 · Cited by 27
“The durati n of this period would also depend on the rate of the pathological progression offset by compensatory mechanisms usually referred as BR/CR [18].”
BackgroundInfluentialBilingualism as a Contributor to Cognitive Reserve: What it Can do and What it Cannot do
Berkes, M., & Bialystok, E. (2022) · American Journal of Alzheimer s Disease & Other Dementias® · doi:10.1177/15333175221091417 · Cited by 26
“Commonly cited sources of cognitive reserve are several sociobehavioural proxies, including formal education, occupational complexity, stimulating leisure activities and physical activity.(10,11,13,14) Two common threads emerge from research examining these proxy factors.”
BackgroundBerezuk, C., Khan, M. Z., Callahan, B. L., Ramirez, J., Black, S. E., Zakzanis, K. K., & Initiative, A. D. N. (2022) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617722000297 · Cited by 25
“Cognitive reserve (Stern, 2012) and brain reserve (Katzman et al., 1988) hypotheses are possible explanations for greater vulnerability in women (Malpetti et al., 2017; Skup et al., 2011).”
Jin, Y., Lin, L., Xiong, M., Sun, S., & Wu, S. (2023) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2023.04.003 · Cited by 25
Kizilirmak, J. M., Soch, J., Schütze, H., Düzel, E., Feldhoff, H., Fischer, L., Knopf, L., Maaß, A., Raschick, M., Schult, A., et al. (2023) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.26299 · Cited by 23
“Although this mechanism may be thought of along the lines of cognitive reserve (Cabeza et al., 2018; Stern, 2009, 2012), that is, a compensatory neurocognitive strategy, it should be noted that the strategy is not necessarily a beneficial one, as actual DMN activations during successful encoding…”
BackgroundLongitudinal effects of choir singing on aging cognition and wellbeing: a two-year follow-up study
Pentikäinen, E., Kimppa, L., Pitkäniemi, A., Lahti, O., & Särkämö, T. (2023) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2023.1174574 · Cited by 30
“Vocabulary performance has been viewed as an index of cognitive reserve (Nogueira et al., 2022), reflecting the reduced susceptibility to age-related pathological brain changes, such as those in Alzheimer’s disease (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundGelfo, F., Florenzano, F., Foti, F., Burello, L., Petrosini, L., & Bartolo, P. D. (2015) · Brain Structure and Function · doi:10.1007/s00429-015-1109-5 · Cited by 25
“Originally connected to rather gross structural features as brain volume and weight, the brain reserve construct has been more recently enlarged to more fine factors, as number of neurons and dendritic spine density and size (Stern 2002, 2012).”
Treble‐Barna, A., Juranek, J. J., Stuebing, K. K., Cirino, P. T., Dennis, M., & Fletcher, J. M. (2014) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000111 · Cited by 25
“Based on the reserve hypothesis (Dennis, Yeates, Taylor, & Fletcher, 2007; Steffener & Stern, 2012; Stern, 2012), these individuals might be less likely to show age-related cognitive difficulties relative to lower functioning, more severe cases of SBM. Limitations Potential limitations of the…”
BackgroundKrch, D., Frank, L. E., Chiaravalloti, N. D., Vakil, E., & DeLuca, J. (2019) · Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation · doi:10.1097/htr.0000000000000472 · Cited by 25
Amyloid burden and white matter hyperintensities mediate age-related cognitive differences
Dupont, P. S., Bocti, C., Joannette, M., Lavallée, M. M., Nikelski, J., Vallet, G. T., Chertkow, H., & Joubert, S. (2020) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2019.08.025 · Cited by 25
Utility of Plasma Neurofilament Light in the 1Florida Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center (ADRC)
Barker, W., Quinonez, C., Greig, M. T., Behar, R., Chirinos, C. L., Rodriguez, R. A., Rosselli, M., Rodriguez, M. J., Curiel, R. E., Rundek, T., et al. (2020) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-200901 · Cited by 25
“In addition, factors, such as cognitive reserve [33], genetic influences, immune dysfunction, and individual lifestyles may either enhance or suppress the association of cognitive status to the underlying neuropathology [34].”
BackgroundCortical excitability and the aging brain: toward a biomarker of cognitive resilience
Palermo, S., Di Fazio, C., Scaliti, E., Stanziano, M., Nigri, A., & Tamietto, M. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1542880 · Cited by 24
“Higher CE levels could support cognitive reserve by improving the brain’s flexibility in managing task-relevant resources, which could attenuate age-related cognitive differences (Stern et al., 2019; Stern, 2009; Stern, 2012).”
Yang, W., Wang, J., Guo, J., Dove, A., Qi, X., Bennett, D. A., & Xu, W. (2024) · The Journal of Prevention of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.14283/jpad.2024.54 · Cited by 24
“…1) in the MRI subsample (n=34,041), 2) after excluding participants who developed dementia during the follow-up (n=495) to reduce reverse causality, 3) further adjusting for the Townsend deprivation index, a variable reflecting neighborhood-level socio-economic status, and 4) stratifying by sex to…”
BackgroundBiessels, G. J. (2013) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc13-1501 · Cited by 24
“The total burden of cerebral pathologies, in interaction with structural and functional compensatory processes, also referred to as brain reserve or cognitive reserve (7), determine when cognitive dysfunction becomes clinically manifest.”
BackgroundBurhan, A. M., Bartha, R., Bocti, C., BORRIE, M. J., Laforce, R. J., Rosa‐Neto, P., & Soucy, J. (2013) · Alzheimer s Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/alzrt200 · Cited by 24
“Th is eff ect was demonstrated in recent neuroimaging studies where regional cerebral blood fl ow measured by PET scanning was inversely related to the level of education and occupational attainment, indicating higher resiliency in those with higher cognitive reserve in the face of Alzheimer’s pathology [3].”
BackgroundEnhancing Allocentric Spatial Recall in Pre-schoolers through Navigational Training Programme
Boccia, M., Rosella, M., Vecchione, F., Tanzilli, A., Palermo, L., D’Amico, S., Guariglia, C., & Piccardi, L. (2017) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2017.00574 · Cited by 26
“It is largely accepted that learning produces a brain re-organization that acts as a “brain reserve,” increasing the brain’s tolerance to disease (Stern, 2012; Colangeli et al., 2016).”
BackgroundLannuzel, A., Edragas, R., Lackmy, A., Tressières, B., Pelonde-Erimée, V., Edimonana-Kaptue, M., Mécharles, S., Demas, A., François, B., McGovern, E. M., et al. (2018) · Journal of the Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jns.2018.02.019 · Cited by 24
“Moreover, lifelong intellectual enrichment related to education likely reduces neurodegenerative consequences on cognitive function, and may even halt the progression of brain pathologies [40,41].”
Staging the cognitive continuum in prodromal Alzheimer's disease with episodic memory
Moscoso, A., Silva‐Rodríguez, J., Aldrey, J. M., Cortés, J., Fernández‐Ferreiro, A., Gómez‐Lado, N., Ruibal, Á., & Aguiar, P. (2019) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2019.07.014 · Cited by 23
“It is not clear, however, to what extent these differences in progression can be attributed to a more fi ne-grained staging system rather than to differences in cognitive reserve (Stern, 2012, 2006) or concomitant pathology burden.”
Impact of Cognitive Reserve and Premorbid IQ on Cognitive and Functional Status in Older Outpatients
Quattropani, M. C. A., Sardella, A., Morgante, F., et al. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11070824 · Cited by 24
“In this context, the concept of reserve has been originally suggested as a core of protective factors against the onset of negative age-related outcomes [5].”
BackgroundLee, M., Hughes, T. M., George, K. M., Griswold, M. E., Sedaghat, S., Simino, J. M., & Lutsey, P. L. (2021) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/glab299 · Cited by 22
Gómez‐Soria, I., Ferreira, C., Oliván‐Blázquez, B., Botaya, R. M., & Calatayud, E. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0261313 · Cited by 25
“CR provides an explanation for the uneven predisposition to distinct age-related brain changes between older adults, while some subjects withstand these changes by maintaining their neuropsychological construct [82].”
BackgroundPortaccio, E., Bellinvia, A., Razzolini, L., Pastò, L., Goretti, B., Niccolai, C., Fonderico, M., Zaffaroni, M., Pippolo, L., Moiola, L., et al. (2022) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000200115 · Cited by 24
Soch, J., Richter, A., Kizilirmak, J. M., Schütze, H., Feldhoff, H., Fischer, L., Knopf, L., Raschick, M., Schult, A., Düzel, E., et al. (2022) · eNeuro · doi:10.1523/eneuro.0212-22.2022 · Cited by 23
“…to a larger extent, but is compatible with earlier studies suggesting that in healthy older adults, functional neurocognitive resources may be more important for cognitive performance than structural measures of brain integrity (Scarmeas et al., 2003; Stern, 2009, 2012; Cabeza et al., 2018).”
ResultTransitions Between Mild Cognitive Impairment, Dementia, and Mortality: The Importance of Olfaction
Knight, J. E., Yoneda, T. B., Lewis, N. A., Terrera, G. M., Bennett, D. A., & Piccinin, A. M. (2023) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/glad001 · Cited by 26
Deciphering the clinico-radiological heterogeneity of dysexecutive Alzheimer’s disease
Corriveau‐Lecavalier, N., Barnard, L. R., Lee, J., Dicks, E., Botha, H., Graff‐Radford, J., Machulda, M. M., Boeve, B. F., Knopman, D. S., Lowe, V. J., et al. (2023) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhad017 · Cited by 25
“…into variables that may relate to this remaining variance, for instance factors related to brain health (e.g. vascular), cognitive reserve (e.g. cerebral reserve, lifestyle, Stern 2012), or technical factors (e.g. optimized imaging protocols) will be required to further explain this variability.”
BackgroundZhou, X., & Wu, H. Y. (2023) · Journal of Global Health · doi:10.7189/jogh.13.04068 · Cited by 24
Moving Away from Amyloid Beta to Move on in Alzheimer Research
Moreno‐Treviño, M. G., Castillo-López, J., & Meester, I. (2015) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2015.00002 · Cited by 24
“…provide several explanations: (1) the phenomenon reflects the prodromal period, (2) cognitively healthy subjects have a “cognitive reserve” (Stern, 2012), i.e., excess of dendritic spines, or (3) the inert and very resistant senile plaques should be considered rather protective than…”
BackgroundNetwork topology and dynamics in traumatic brain injury
Barbey, A. K., Belli, A., Logan, A., Rubin, R. D., Zamroziewicz, M. K., & Operskalski, J. T. (2015) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2015.04.002 · Cited by 23
“Poor diet, physical fitness, alcoholism, drug abuse, psychiatric history, and other neurological insults can make individuals with TBI more susceptible to cognitive decline [73,74].”
BackgroundGenetic Association of HLA Gene Variants with MRI Brain Structure in Alzheimer’s Disease
Initiative, A. D. N., Wang, Z., Wan, Y., Tan, L., Liu, J., Wang, H.-F., Sun, F.-R., Tan, C., Tan, C.-C., Jiang, T., et al. (2016) · Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1007/s12035-016-9889-z · Cited by 24
“[18, 19], it seemed that the researchers’ attention focused more on some brain regions specifically associated with AD, such as hippocampus, hippocampus CA1 subregion, middle temporal area, entorhinal area, posterior cingulate, precuneus, and parahippocampal area than the global situation of the whole brain.”
BackgroundHeterogeneous multimodal biomarkers analysis for Alzheimer’s disease via Bayesian network
Initiative, T. A. D. N., Jin, Y., Su, Y., Zhou, X., & Huang, S. (2016) · EURASIP Journal on Bioinformatics and Systems Biology · doi:10.1186/s13637-016-0046-9 · Cited by 25
“The identified relationship between years of education and the cognitive performance might be a cognitive reserve effect as reported by a number of studies [28–31].”
ResultMcGough, E. L., Kirk-Sanchez, N. J., & Liu-Ambrose, T. Y. L. (2017) · Neurology Report · doi:10.1097/npt.0000000000000181 · Cited by 24
Early-Age Running Enhances Activity of Adult-Born Dentate Granule Neurons Following Learning in Rats
Shevtsova, O., Tan, Y., Merkley, C. M., Winocur, G., & Wojtowicz, J. M. (2017) · eNeuro · doi:10.1523/eneuro.0237-17.2017 · Cited by 24
“The influence of early life experiences on learning and memory in later life is a topic needing more study (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundFactors influencing accuracy of cortical thickness in the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease
Mahanand, B. S., Fischl, B. R., Salat, D. H., & Initiative, A. D. N. (2017) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.23922 · Cited by 23
“Prior studies have shown association of the cognitive reserve markers with a lower risk of AD and memory decline (Buckner, 2004; Katzman et al., 1988; Lo and Jagust, 2013; Murray et al., 2011; Stern et al., 1994; Stern, 2012).”
MethodResultFerreiro, E. B., Pita, I. R., Mota, S. I., et al. (2018) · Oncotarget · doi:10.18632/oncotarget.25978 · Cited by 24
The hidden variables problem in Alzheimer's disease clinical trial design
Liyanage, S., Santos, C., & Weaver, D. F. (2018) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1016/j.trci.2018.09.003 · Cited by 20
“In AD, CR has shown robust associations with disease risk and cognitive decline after onset [14].”
BackgroundInfluentialCognitive Profiling Related to Cerebral Amyloid Beta Burden Using Machine Learning Approaches
Ko, H., Ihm, J., Kim, H., & Initiative, A. D. N. (2019) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2019.00095 · Cited by 24
“With respect to the ANART, it is a premorbid intelligence test that is known as a proxy of cognitive reserve (CR), which may explain how some individuals can preserve normal cognitive function despite pathological change, such as cortical atrophy (Stern, 2012).”
MethodCognitive and functional progression of dementia in two longitudinal studies
Wang, Y., Haaksma, M. L., Ramakers, I. H. G. B., Verhey, F. R. J., van der Flier, W. M., Scheltens, P., van Maurik, I. S., Rikkert, M. G. M. O., Leoutsakos, J., & Melis, R. J. F. (2019) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.5175 · Cited by 24
“Higher‐educated people might be better able to cope with the initial signs of the disease and maintain their daily functioning, up until a certain threshold, after which they exhibit a sudden and steep decline.(37) However, we did not observe any differences in duration of education across the identified classes withi…”
BackgroundChen, L., & Lu, B. (2019) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1017/s1041610219001662 · Cited by 24
“Education moderated the relationship between hearing difficulties and cognitive impairment (Loughrey et al., 2018), which was often used as a proxy of cognitive reserve (CR) (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundMethodAsih, P. R., Chatterjee, P., Verdile, G., Gupta, V. B., Trengove, R. D., & Martins, R. N. (2014) · Neurodegenerative Disease Management · doi:10.2217/nmt.14.29 · Cited by 24
Yu, I., Griffin, C. A., Phillips∥, P. C., Strauss, L. C., & Perlman, E. J. (1995) · PubMed · Cited by 24
Yu, X., Li, X., Du, Z.-R., Zhang, Y., Fei, Y., Tang, W.-P., Li, X., & Zhao, Q. S. (2024) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12916-024-03491-z · Cited by 25
Educational attainment, Aβ, tau, and structural brain reserve in Alzheimer's disease
Cai, Y. Q., Fang, L., Li, A., Yang, J., Zhou, X. Y., He, Z., Sun, P., Wang, Q., Guo, T., & Initiative, A. D. N. (2025) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.14400 · Cited by 22
“9,10,14,15 However, the association between EA and longitudinal domain-specific cognitive decline is still debated.”
Frisch, S. (2016) · Psychopathology · doi:10.1159/000447359 · Cited by 24
Score Disparity Between the MMSE and the SLUMS
Yoelin, A. B., & Saunders, N. W. (2017) · American Journal of Alzheimer s Disease & Other Dementias® · doi:10.1177/1533317517705222 · Cited by 23
Veugen, M. G. J., Henry, R. M. A., Rocca, H. B., Dagnelie, P. C., Schram, M. T., van Agtmaal, M. J. M., Kallen, C., Sep, S. J. S., van Boxtel, M. P. J., Bekers, O., et al. (2018) · Arteriosclerosis Thrombosis and Vascular Biology · doi:10.1161/atvbaha.118.311082 · Cited by 23
Ihle, A., Oris, M., Baeriswyl, M., Zuber, S., Cullati, S., Maurer, J., & Kliegel, M. (2019) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1017/s1041610219001789 · Cited by 23
“In this regard, the cognitive reserve concept postulates that cognitive stimulation (such as leisure activities) builds up a buffer that is instrumental for preserving cognitive functioning in aging (Stern, 2009; 2012).”
BackgroundAssociation between exposure to air pollution and thalamus volume in adults: A cross-sectional study
Hedges, D. W., Erickson, L. D., Gale, S. D., Anderson, J. E., & Brown, B. L. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0230829 · Cited by 23
“While we did not investigate mechanisms underlying these possible associations, one possibility might be related to the increased cognitive reserve in people with more education, which might decrease vulnerability to brain insult [49], including possibly air pollution.”
BackgroundThe Role of Polygenic Score and Cognitive Activity in Cognitive Functioning Among Older Adults
Shin, S. H., Park, S., Wright, C., D’Astous, V., & Kim, G. (2020) · The Gerontologist · doi:10.1093/geront/gnaa073 · Cited by 23
Liu, L., Jian, P., Zhou, Y., Zhou, J. H., Jia, L., Tang, M., Zhang, R., & Tang, Y. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.595623 · Cited by 27
“The protective effect of high education on cognition can be explained by the cognitive reserve hypothesis (18, 19), which suggests that people with higher cognitive reserves are more resilient to agerelated neurological changes, through the maintenance of more intact cognitive functioning (20).”
BackgroundTesting the Cognitive Reserve Index Questionnaire in an Alzheimer’s Disease Population
Garba, A. E., Grossberg, G. T., Enard, K. R., Jano, F. J., Roberts, E. N., Marx, C., & Buchanan, P. M. (2020) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease Reports · doi:10.3233/adr-200244 · Cited by 23
“He posed the idea that educational, occupational, and leisurely experiences impart some type of reserve that suppresses the appearance of AD pathology [15, 17, 38].”
BackgroundKim, H.-Y., Hong, J. P., Kang, J. M., Kim, W., Maeng, S., Cho, S., Na, K., Oh, S. H., Park, J. W., Cho, S., et al. (2021) · Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1111/psyg.12705 · Cited by 27
Cibeira, N., Lorenzo‐López, L., Maseda, A., Blanco‐Fandiño, J., López‐López, R., & Millán-Calentí, J. C. (2021) · Geriatric Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.gerinurse.2021.04.026 · Cited by 31
“An active lifestyle with regular and frequent practice of mentally stimulating activities appears to delay the onset of pathologies associated with cognitive decline.(5,11,12) Furthermore, some investigations have reported social and psychological benefits derived from the practice of cognitively stimulating leisure a…”
BackgroundLi, X., Zhou, S., Zhu, W., Li, X., Gao, Z., Li, M., Luo, S., Wu, X., Tian, Y., & Yu, Y. (2021) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.639529 · Cited by 23
“Studies have demonstrated that educational and occupational attainment can increase cognitive reserve (Bennett et al., 2003; Hall et al., 2007; Garibotto et al., 2008; Stern, 2012; Yasuno et al., 2020).”
BackgroundRequena-Ocaña, N., Araos, P. F., Flores, M., García‐Marchena, N., Silva‐Peña, D., Aranda, J., Rivera, P., Ruiz, J. J., Serrano, A., Pavón, F. J., et al. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-95131-2 · Cited by 27
Kulminski, A. M., Loiko, E., Loika, Y., & Culminskaya, I. V. (2021) · GeroScience · doi:10.1007/s11357-021-00484-1 · Cited by 24
“One hypothesis is that EDU helps build and maintain the cognitive reserve, and, therefore, education is considered a proxy of cognitive reserve [8].”
BackgroundSociodemographic, Lifestyle, Physical, and Psychosocial Determinants of Cognitive Reserve
Zijlmans, J. L., Lamballais, S., Vernooij, M. W., Ikram, M. A., & Luik, A. I. (2021) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-215122 · Cited by 24
Ren, Y., Dong, Y., Hou, T., Han, X., Liu, R., Wang, Y., Xu, S., Wang, X., Monastero, R., Cong, L., et al. (2021) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-215236 · Cited by 24
Rural/urban dwelling across the life-course and late-life cognitive ability in Mexico
Saenz, J. L., Downer, B. G., García, M. A., & Wong, R. (2022) · SSM - Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2022.101031 · Cited by 31
Chen, X., Xue, B., & Hu, Y. (2022) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-12671-6 · Cited by 27
“Stern [4] proposed the concept of cognitive reserve (CR) – the functional and dynamic abilities of the brain that actively buffer neurodegeneration and neuropathology [5] – to explain the observed heterogeneity between individuals in their cognitive decline trajectories and their susceptibility to cognitive impairment…”
BackgroundJeon, S., Lee, S., & Charles, S. T. (2022) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbac053 · Cited by 23
“…activities are also related to higher levels of cognitive functioning and slower agerelated cognitive declines (Agrigoroaei & Lachman, 2011; Eriksson et al., 1998; Stern, 2012; Vance et al., 2010), and to greater cortical and subcortical brain volume (Engvig et al., 2014; Seider et al., 2016).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMarsh, E. B., Khan, S., Llinas, R. H., Walker, K. A., & Brandt, J. (2022) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.2571 · Cited by 23
“performed (where factors like education or IQ may play a role) (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundCharacteristics of people living with undiagnosed dementia: findings from the CFAS Wales study
Gamble, L. D., Matthews, F. E., Jones, I. R., Hillman, A. E., Woods, B. T., MacLeod, C. A., Martyr, A., Collins, R., Pentecost, C., Rusted, J. M., et al. (2022) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-022-03086-4 · Cited by 25
“These people are hypothesised to have a higher cognitive reserve, where the brain can cope with increasing damage whilst still functioning adequately [72].”
BackgroundKleineidam, L., Wolfsgruber, S., Weyrauch, A., Zulka, L. E., Forstmeier, S., Roeske, S., van den Bussche, H., Kaduszkiewicz, H., Wiese, B., Weyerer, S. B., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.957308 · Cited by 25
“For individuals with a high CR, the predicted cognitive trajectories with progressively developing pathologies have been well-described (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialGracia‐García, P., Bueno‐Notivol, J., Lipnicki, D. M., de la Cámara, C., Lobo, A., & Santabárbara, J. (2023) · International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1002/mpr.1934 · Cited by 28
“In addition, chronic anxiety may promote avoidance behaviours, with reduced exposure to mental and social stimuli resulting in decreased cognitive reserve (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundBastin, C., & Delhaye, E. (2023) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-023-01093-5 · Cited by 30
“Nevertheless, the presence of brain pathology cannot reliably predict when an individual will become demented, notably because cognitive reserve built from lifestyle protective factors can delay symptoms onset (Stern, 2012).”
Ferrari, C., Nacmias, B., Bagnoli, S., Piaceri, I., Lombardi, G., Pradella, S., Tedde, A., & Sorbi, S. (2013) · Neurodegenerative Diseases · doi:10.1159/000353690 · Cited by 25
Phonologic errors in the logopenic variant of primary progressive aphasia
Petroi, D., Duffy, J., Strand, E. A., & Josephs, K. (2014) · Aphasiology · doi:10.1080/02687038.2014.910591 · Cited by 20
“…Quiroz-Baez, & Arias, 2008; Patel, 2012) and that higher education and occupational attainment may decrease the risk of Alzheimer’s dementia, possibly because of greater cognitive reserve that may delay clinical manifestations (e.g., Stern, 2012; Stern et al., 1994; Valenzuela & Sachdev, 2006).”
BackgroundGender Differences in Factors Associated With Delirium Severity in Older Adults With Dementia
Kolanowski, A. M., Hill, N. L., Kürüm, E., Fick, D. M., Yevchak, A. M., Mulhall, P. M., Clare, L., & Valenzuela, M. (2014) · Archives of Psychiatric Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.apnu.2014.01.004 · Cited by 23
Metabolic correlates of reserve and resilience in MCI due to Alzheimer's Disease (AD)
Bauckneht, M., Chincarini, A., Piva, R., Arnaldi, D., Girtler, N. G., Massa, F., Pardini, M., Grazzini, M., Efetürk, H., Pagani, M., et al. (2018) · Alzheimer s Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13195-018-0366-y · Cited by 24
“In this framework, whereas reserve generally refers to the capability of sustaining cognition against AD-related damage even at high levels of AD pathology [11], resilience corresponds to the supposed capability of some individuals to slow the progression of neurodegeneration despite harboring the primary risk factors…”
BackgroundShakersain, B., Rizzuto, D., Wang, H., Irving, G. F., Prinelli, F., Fratiglioni, L., & Xu, W. (2018) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu10091297 · Cited by 28
“Epidemiological studies suggest that life-time exposures, such as healthy lifestyle factors may increase the cognitive reserve or resilience [2,12].”
BackgroundDementia severity at death: a register-based cohort study
Aworinde, J., Werbeloff, N., Lewis, G., Livingston, G., & Sommerlad, A. (2018) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-018-1930-5 · Cited by 25
Sex Moderates Amyloid and Apolipoprotein ε4 Effects on Default Mode Network Connectivity at Rest
Caldwell, J., Zhuang, X., Leavitt, M. J., Banks, S. J., Cummings, J. L., Cordes, D., & Initiative, T. A. D. N. (2019) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2019.00900 · Cited by 26
“Moving beyond sex-based memory reserve, a separate body of literature has delineated ways in which general cognitive reserve—often indexed by higher education levels or intelligence, and presumed to involve cognition broadly—can delay onset of AD symptoms (10).”
BackgroundZappettini, S., Faivre, É., Ghestem, A., Carrier, S., Buée, L., Blum, D. L., Esclapez, M., & Bernard, C. (2019) · Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fncel.2019.00438 · Cited by 23
Predicting resistance to amyloid-beta deposition and cognitive resilience in the oldest-old
Snitz, B. E., Chang, Y., Tudorascu, D., López, O. L., Lopresti, B. J., DeKosky, S. T., Carlson, M. C., Cohen, A. D., Kamboh, M. I., Aizenstein, H. J., et al. (2020) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000010239 · Cited by 26
Cognitive Reserve and Executive Functions in Adults with Type 2 Diabetes
Peña-González, P., Mondragón‐Maya, A., Silva‐Pereyra, J., & Roa‐Rojas, P. (2020) · Journal of Diabetes Research · doi:10.1155/2020/7941543 · Cited by 25
“CR mediates cognitive performance by delaying the appearance of clinical symptoms from subjacent brain pathology or attenuating the severity of such symptoms [13, 14].”
BackgroundCognitive reserve in patients with first-episode psychosis as outcome predictor at 5-year follow-up
Camprodon‐Boadas, P., de la Serna, E., Baeza, I., Puig, O., Ilzarbe, D., Sugranyes, G., Borràs, R., & Castro‐Fornieles, J. (2020) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-020-01668-4 · Cited by 24
Besser, L. M., Edwards, K. A., Lobban, N., Tolea, M. I., & Galvin, J. E. (2024) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease Reports · doi:10.3233/adr-230155 · Cited by 21
Air pollution: a latent key driving force of dementia
Mohammadzadeh, M., Khoshakhlagh, A. H., & Grafman, J. H. (2024) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-024-19918-4 · Cited by 26
Britt, D. M. I., & Day, G. S. (2016) · PubMed Central · Cited by 22
Cox regression model under dependent truncation
Rennert, L., & Xie, S. X. (2021) · Biometrics · doi:10.1111/biom.13451 · Cited by 21
“CR is a widely used hypothetical construct intended to account for individual differences in cognitive decline and clinical manifestations of dementia among individuals with AD (Meng and D’Arcy, 2012; Stern, 2012).”
Spousal Education and Cognitive Functioning in Later Life
Xu, M. (2019) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbz014 · Cited by 22
“Such resources encompass economic resources, health-related knowledge, healthy lifestyles, and cognitively challenging occupations and leisure activities (Langa et al., 2017; Langa et al., 2008; Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialHealth and social correlates of dementia in oldest‐old Mexican‐origin populations
Mejía-Arango, S., Aguila, E., Ortega, M. L., Gutiérrez‐Robledo, L. M., Vega, W. A., Andrade, F. C. D., Rote, S. M., Grasso, S. M., Markides, K. S., & Angel, J. L. (2020) · Alzheimer s & Dementia Translational Research & Clinical Interventions · doi:10.1002/trc2.12105 · Cited by 22
Ciccarelli, N., Colombo, B., Pepe, F., Magni, E., Antonietti, A., & Silveri, M. (2021) · Neuropsychology, development, and cognition. Section B, Aging, neuropsychology and cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2021.1892026 · Cited by 18
“…premorbid intelligence, and brain volume could explain individual tolerance and response to cognitive difficulties due to age or brain pathologies as Alzheimer’s disease (AD) or PD (Andel et al., 2006; Colombo, Piromalli et al., 2019; Hindle et al., 2014; Richards & Deary, 2005; Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialMcElroy, E., Richards, M., Fitzsimons, E., Conti, G., Ploubidis, G. B., Sullivan, A., & Moulton, V. (2021) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech-2020-215637 · Cited by 24
“25 The number of years of formal education 26 and having a mentally stimulating or complex job 27 may help to build cognitive reserve.”
Bilingualism: A Global Public Health Strategy for Healthy Cognitive Aging
Mendis, S. B., Raymont, V., & Tabet, N. (2021) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2021.628368 · Cited by 25
“Cognitive reserve factors have been associated with the delay of onset of dementia and better cognitive outcomes in aging (16).”
BackgroundIñesta, C., Oltra‐Cucarella, J., Bonete-López, B., Calderón-Rubio, E., & Maciá, E. S. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18199958 · Cited by 27
“This protective link is mostly attributed to an increased cognitive reserve, which compensates for brain changes in normal aging and delays the clinical ex‐ pression of cognitive impairment despite underlying brain pathology caused by neuro‐ degenerative processes [34,35].”
BackgroundWork Demands and Cognitive Health Inequities by Race and Ethnicity: A Scoping Review
Gonzales, E. G., Whetung, C., Lee, Y. J., & Kruchten, R. (2022) · The Gerontologist · doi:10.1093/geront/gnac025 · Cited by 22
The relationship between cognitive engagement and better memory in midlife
Bransby, L., Buckley, R. F., Rosenich, E., Franks, K. H., Yassi, N., Maruff, P. T., Pase, M. P., & Lim, Y. Y. (2022) · Alzheimer s & Dementia Diagnosis Assessment & Disease Monitoring · doi:10.1002/dad2.12278 · Cited by 23
Hijfte, L. V., Loret, G., Bachmann, H., Reynders, T., Breuls, M., Deschepper, E., Kühle, J., Willekens, B. M. P., & Laureys, G. (2022) · Multiple Sclerosis and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.msard.2022.104016 · Cited by 24
Living Alone During Old Age and the Risk of Dementia: Assessing the Cumulative Risk of Living Alone
Shaw, B. A., Yang, T., & Kim, S. (2022) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbac156 · Cited by 22
Ringin, E., Dunstan, D. W., McIntyre, R. S., Owen, N. G., Berk, M., Rossell, S. L., Hallgren, M. Å., & Rheenen, T. E. V. (2023) · Mental health and physical activity · doi:10.1016/j.mhpa.2023.100514 · Cited by 21
Baranyi, G., Conte, F. P., Deary, I. J., Shortt, N., Thompson, C. W., Cox, S. R., & Pearce, J. R. (2023) · Age and Ageing · doi:10.1093/ageing/afad056 · Cited by 23
“Childhood environment and subsequent educational enrichment may contribute to ‘cognitive reserves’ through life, which can support the brain’s coping and resilience by delaying pathology and age-related decline [48].”
BackgroundGenetically proxied lean mass and risk of Alzheimer’s disease: mendelian randomisation study
Daghlas, I., Nassan, M. M., & Gill, D. (2023) · BMJ Medicine · doi:10.1136/bmjmed-2022-000354 · Cited by 23
Cognitive impairments and mental health of patients with post-COVID-19: A cross-sectional study
Morawa, E., Krehbiel, J., Borho, A., Herold, R., Lieb, M., Schug, C., & Erim, Y. (2023) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2023.111441 · Cited by 22
Instrumental activities of daily living and mild cognitive impairment
Libon, D. J., Emrani, S., Matusz, E. F., Wasserman, V., Perweiler, E. A., Ginsberg, T. B., Powell, L. A., Bezdíček, O., Swenson, R. A., & Schmitter‐Edgecombe, M. (2023) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2023.2249626 · Cited by 24
“More years of education have also been shown to reduce the risk of developing AD (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundPredictive Factors for Disease Progression in Patients With Early-Onset Alzheimer’s Disease
Yoon, B., Shim, Y. S., Park, H. K., Park, S. A., Choi, S. H., & Yang, D. W. (2015) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-150462 · Cited by 22
“ies and ours [38–42].”
Predicting cognitive function of the Malaysian elderly: a structural equation modelling approach
Foong, H. F., Hamid, T. A., Ibrahim, R., Haron, S. A., & Shahar, S. (2016) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2016.1231172 · Cited by 22
“The cognitive reserve hypothesis propounds that due to greater brain reserve, some individuals have a larger capacity to withstand pathologic changes to the brain (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundAdvances in the Neuroscience of Intelligence: from Brain Connectivity to Brain Perturbation
Santarnecchi, E., & Rossi, S. (2016) · The Spanish Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1017/sjp.2016.89 · Cited by 22
“In light of the recently documented links between individual cognitive profile and resilience to perturbation (Santarnecchi et al., 2015), analysis taking into account chronological age might also be aimed at investigating the neurophysiological underpinnings of Cognitive Reserve (CR) (Stern, 2012).”
Mura, T., Baramova, M., Gabelle, A., Artéro, S., Dartigues, J., Amieva, H., & Berr, C. (2017) · Alzheimer s Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13195-016-0230-x · Cited by 24
“[19] for quantifying the cognitive reserve [20] from the scores of an episodic memory test after removing the variability due to socio-demographic factors and level of brain pathology.”
Metadata
- Authors
- Stern, Y.
- Affiliations
- Columbia University Irving Medical Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Stern, Yaakov
- ORCID
- Stern, Yaakov
- Venue
- The Lancet Neurology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-11
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 1006-1012
- ISSN
- 1474-4422 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3507991
- OpenAlex
- W2144907160
- Cited by
- 3,557
- References
- 59
- Citations by year
- 2026: 412 · 2025: 352 · 2024: 311 · 2023: 343 · 2022: 281 · 2021: 303 · 2020: 350 · 2019: 292 · 2018: 244 · 2017: 213 · 2016: 176 · 2015: 125 · 2014: 93 · 2013: 58 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 12.06
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- The Lancet Neurology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Columbia Academic Commons (Columbia University)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (R01AG026158, R01AG014671)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Alzheimer's disease research and treatments
- Keywords
- cognitive reserve, brain reserve, Alzheimer's disease, cognitive aging, dementia risk, educational attainment, occupational attainment, leisure
- MeSH terms
- Aging, Alzheimer Disease, Animals, Humans, Cognitive Reserve
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