Perfluorinated Surfactants in Surface and Drinking Waters (9 pp)
Abstract
Goal, scope and background In this paper recent results are provided of an investigation on the discovery of 12 perfluorinated surfactants (PS) in different surface and drinking waters (Skutlarek et al. 2006 a, Skutlarek et al. 2006 b). In the last years, many studies have reported ubiquitous distribution of this group of perfluorinated chemicals, especially perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) in the environment, particularly in wildlife animal and human samples (Giesy and Kannan 2001, Houde et al. 2006, Prevedouros et al. 2006). Perfluorinated surfactants (e.g. PFOS and PFOA) have shown different potentials for reproductory interference and carcinogenity in animal experiments as well as partly long half-lives in humans (Guruge et al. 2006, FSA UK 2006a, FSA UK 2006b, 3M 2005, OECD 2002, Yao and Zhong 2005). They possess compound-dependent extreme recalcitrance against microbiological and chemical degradation and, in addition, they show variable potentials for bioaccumulation in animals and humans (Houde et al. 2006).Methods Surface and drinking water samples were collected from different sampling sites: Surface waters: samples taken from the rivers Rhine, Ruhr, Moehne and some of their tributaries. Further samples were taken from the Rhine-Herne-Canal and the Wesel-Datteln-Canal. Drinking waters: samples taken in public buildings of the Rhine-Ruhr area. After sample clean-up and concentration by solid-phase extraction, the perfluorinated surfactants were determined using HPLC-MS/MS.Results All measured concentrations (sum of seven mainly detected components) in the Rhine river and its main tributaries (mouths) were determined below 100 ng/L. The Ruhr river (tributary of the Rhine) showed the highest concentration (94 ng/L), but with a completely different pattern of components (PFOA as major component), as compared with the other tributaries and the Rhine river. Further investigations along the Ruhr river showed remarkably high concentrations of PS in the upper reaches of the Ruhr river and the Moehne river (tributary of the Ruhr) (Ruhr: up to 446 ng/L, Moehne: up to 4385 ng/L). The maximum concentration of all drinking water samples taken in the Rhine-Ruhr area was determined at 598 ng/L with the major component PFOA (519 ng/L).Discussion The surface water contaminations most likely stem from contaminated inorganic and organic waste materials (so-called 'Abfallgemisch'). This waste material was legally applied to several agricultural areas on the upper reaches of the Moehne. Perfluorinated surfactants could be detected in some suchlike soil samples. They contaminated the river and the reservoir belonging to it, likely by superficial run-off over several months or probably years. Downstream, dilution effects are held responsible for decreasing concentrations of PS in surface waters of the Moehne and the Ruhr river. In analogy to the surface water samples, PS (major component PFOA) can be determined in many drinking water samples of the Rhine-Ruhr area where the water supplies are mainly based on bank filtration and artificial recharge.Conclusions The concentrations found in drinking waters decreased with the concentrations of the corresponding raw water samples along the flow direction of the Ruhr river (from east to west) and were not significantly different from surface water concentrations. This indicates that perfluorinated surfactants are at present not successfully removed by water treatment steps.Recommendations and perspectives Because of their different problematic properties (persistence, mobility, toxicity, bioaccumulation), the concentrations of specific perfluorinated surfactants and their precursors in drinking waters and food have to be minimised. Therefore, it is of utmost importance to take the initiative to establish suitable legal regulations (limitations/ban) concerning the production and use of these surfactants and their precursors. Furthermore, it is indispensable to protect water resources from these compounds. A discussion on appropriate limit values in drinking water and foodstuffs is urgently needed. Concerning the assumed soil contamination, the corresponding regulation (Bioabfall-Verordnung 1998--Regulation on Organic Waste 1998) should be extended to allow the control of relevant organic pollutants.
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Biosolids applied to agricultural fields were linked to PFAS contamination in the upper Moehne River in Heidelberg, Germany, with a maximum total concentration of 4,348 ng/L (seven PFASs with 83% being PFOA).
“In another study, biosolids applied to agricultural fields were linked to PFAS contamination in the upper Moehne River in Heidelberg, Germany, with a maximum total concentration of 4,348 ng/L (seven PFASs with 83% being PFOA).41”
From Sources and Pathways of PFAS Occurrence in Water Sources: Relative Contribution of Land-Applied Biosolids in an Agricultural Dominated Watershed (2025) · cites this paper as [41]
The Ruhr, Emscher, and Lippe rivers had PFOA and PFOS concentrations ranging from 21 to 48 ng/L and 5-18 ng/L, respectively.
“The Ruhr, Emscher, and Lippe rivers – main tributaries of the Rhine River – had concentrations of PFOA and PFOS ranging from 21 to 48 ng L−1 and 5–18 ng L−1, respectively.”
From Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water and wastewater: A critical review of their global occurrence and distribution (2022) · cites this paper as Exner and Färber, 2006
In the Brilon-Scharfenberg region, PFOA and PFOS concentrations in river water were measured at 3640 and 193 ng/L, respectively.
“In this region, the concentrations of PFOA and PFOS in river water were measured at 3640 and 193 ng L−1, respectively (Exner and Färber, 2006).”
From Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water and wastewater: A critical review of their global occurrence and distribution (2022) · cites this paper as Exner and Färber, 2006
Lake Moehne contained PFOA and PFOS at concentrations of 654 ng/L and 17 ng/L, respectively.
“Lake Moehne also contained PFOA and PFOS with concentrations of 654 ng L−1 and 17 ng L−1, respectively (Skutlarek et al., 2006; Exner and Färber, 2006).”
From Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water and wastewater: A critical review of their global occurrence and distribution (2022) · cites this paper as Exner and Färber, 2006
PFOA and PFOS concentrations in the Rhine River ranged from ND-9 ng/L and 26 ng/L, respectively.
“Another study showed that PFOA and PFOS concentrations in the Rhine River ranged from ND – 9 ng L−1 and 26 ng L−1, respectively (Skutlarek et al., 2006; Exner and Färber, 2006).”
From Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water and wastewater: A critical review of their global occurrence and distribution (2022) · cites this paper as Skutlarek et al., 2006
The Rhine-Herne and Wesel-Datteln Canals contained PFOA at concentrations of 34 and 36 ng/L, respectively.
“The Rhine-Herne and Wesel-Datteln Canals contained PFOA at concentrations of 34 and 36 ng L−1 respectively.”
From Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water and wastewater: A critical review of their global occurrence and distribution (2022) · cites this paper as Exner and Färber, 2006
Extensive land-based application of wastewater biosolids for agricultural activities in the Brilon-Scharfenberg area has substantially polluted a large portion of the upper Moehne River in Heidelberg.
“Studies have shown that extensive land-based application of wastewater biosolids for agricultural activities in the Brilon–Scharfenberg area has substantially polluted a large portion of the upper Moehne River in Heidelberg.”
From Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water and wastewater: A critical review of their global occurrence and distribution (2022) · cites this paper as Exner and Färber, 2006
The Rhine-Herne and Wesel-Datteln Canals contained PFOA at concentrations of 34 and 36 ng/L, respectively.
“The Rhine-Herne and Wesel-Datteln Canals contained PFOA at concentrations of 34 and 36 ng L−1 respectively.”
From Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water and wastewater: A critical review of their global occurrence and distribution (2022) · cites this paper as Skutlarek et al., 2006
Lake Moehne contained PFOA and PFOS at concentrations of 654 ng/L and 17 ng/L, respectively.
“Lake Moehne also contained PFOA and PFOS with concentrations of 654 ng L−1 and 17 ng L−1, respectively (Skutlarek et al., 2006; Exner and Färber, 2006).”
From Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water and wastewater: A critical review of their global occurrence and distribution (2022) · cites this paper as Skutlarek et al., 2006
PFOA and PFOS concentrations in the Rhine River ranged from ND-9 ng/L and 26 ng/L, respectively.
“Another study showed that PFOA and PFOS concentrations in the Rhine River ranged from ND – 9 ng L−1 and 26 ng L−1, respectively (Skutlarek et al., 2006; Exner and Färber, 2006).”
From Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water and wastewater: A critical review of their global occurrence and distribution (2022) · cites this paper as Exner and Färber, 2006
Residential areas such as Neheim, which use Moehne River water as a drinking water source, reported a high PFOA concentration of 519 ng/L in drinking water samples.
“Residential areas, such as Neheim, which use the Moehne River water as a drinking water source also reported a high PFOA concentration of 519 ng L−1 in drinking water samples.”
From Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water and wastewater: A critical review of their global occurrence and distribution (2022) · cites this paper as Exner and Färber, 2006
The Ruhr, Emscher, and Lippe rivers had PFOA and PFOS concentrations ranging from 21 to 48 ng/L and 5-18 ng/L, respectively.
“The Ruhr, Emscher, and Lippe rivers – main tributaries of the Rhine River – had concentrations of PFOA and PFOS ranging from 21 to 48 ng L−1 and 5–18 ng L−1, respectively.”
From Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water and wastewater: A critical review of their global occurrence and distribution (2022) · cites this paper as Skutlarek et al., 2006
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- Authors
- Exner, M., & Färber, H.
- Affiliations
- University of Bonn (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Exner, Martin
- ORCID
- Exner, Martin
- Venue
- Environmental Science and Pollution Research - International
- Published
- 2006-09
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 299-307
- ISSN
- 0944-1344 (ISSN-L)
- 1614-7499
- OpenAlex
- W2016627968
- Cited by
- 507
- References
- 1
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 24 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 26 · 2019: 27 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 23 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 23 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 33 · 2012: 32
- FWCI
- 26.04
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Environmental Science and Pollution Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Environmental Chemistry and Analysis
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Toxic Organic Pollutants Impact
- Keywords
- perfluorinated surfactants, perfluorooctanoic acid, PFOS, surface water contamination, drinking water, Rhine River, Ruhr River, environmental persistence, bioaccumulation, HPLC-MS/MS
- MeSH terms
- Fluorocarbons, Fresh Water, Germany, Soil, Surface-Active Agents, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Water Pollution, Chemical, Water Supply
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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