Emerging poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances in the aquatic environment: A review of current literature
Abstract
Poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) comprise a group of synthetic organic surfactants with a wide range of industrial and commercial applications. A few PFASs such as perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) are now known to be ubiquitously present in the aquatic environment. They have become a global concern because of the toxicity and bioaccumulative properties. With the increasing availability of high-resolution mass spectrometers, many novel PFASs have been identified. Studies published between 2009 and 2017 have discovered 455 new PFASs (including nine fully and 446 partially fluorinated compounds), 45%, 29%, 17%, and 8% of which are anions, zwitterions, cations, and neutrals, respectively. They have been identified in natural waters, fish, sediments, wastewater, activated sludge, soils, aqueous film-forming foams, and commercial fluoropolymer surfactants. This article integrates and critically evaluates what is known about these newly identified PFASs. It discusses the different aspects of detection methodologies. It also surveys the removal of these compounds during conventional and advanced drinking-water and wastewater treatment, predicts the relevant physicochemical properties by means of four software programs, and identifies major knowledge gaps. Notably, a number of these newly identified PFASs are potential precursor compounds of PFOS and PFOA. Studies are critically needed to understand the removal and transformation of these compounds in natural and engineered environmental systems and their contribution, if any, to the secondary formation of PFOS and PFOA in these systems.
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Recent research has indicated the presence in the environment of numerous other PFAS comprising different molecular structures.
“Recent research has indicated the presence in the environment of numerous other PFAS comprising different molecular structures (e.g., Baduel et al., 2017; Xiao, 2017; Xiao et al., 2017).”
From PFAS concentrations in soils: Background levels versus contaminated sites (2020) · cites this paper as Xiao, 2017
PFCAs are continuously produced from many precursor compounds.
“PFCAs are still a moving target because PFCAs are continuously produced from many precursor compounds (Xiao, 2017).”
From Biotransformation of perfluoroalkyl acid precursors from various environmental systems: advances and perspectives (2021) · cites this paper as Xiao, 2017
Short-chain PFAS and emerging compounds are gradually replacing legacy C8 PFAS as major contaminants in surface water.
“they are gradually replacing legacy C8 PFAS as major contaminants in surface water”
Treated effluent often contains numerous micro-pollutants, including PFAS, that may impact human health, and surface water and groundwater quality.
“treated effluent often contains numerous micro-pollutants, including PFAS, that may impact human health, and surface water and groundwater quality (Plumlee et al., 2008; Díaz-Cruz et al., 2009; Xiao, 2017; Szabo et al., 2018).”
From Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water and wastewater: A critical review of their global occurrence and distribution (2022) · cites this paper as Xiao, 2017
Many of the newly identified PFAS could be potential precursor compounds to PFOS and PFOA.
“Many of these identified compounds could be potential precursor compounds to PFOS and PFOA.”
From Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water and wastewater: A critical review of their global occurrence and distribution (2022) · cites this paper as Xiao, 2017
Since 2009, 455 newly identified PFAS, including nine perfluorinated and 446 polyfluorinated compounds, have been identified.
“Since 2009, 455 newly identified PFAS, including nine perfluorinated and 446 polyfluorinated compounds, have been identified (Xiao, 2017).”
From Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water and wastewater: A critical review of their global occurrence and distribution (2022) · cites this paper as Xiao, 2017
Novel PFAS such as 6:2 Cl-PFESA and its analogues, and 6:2 FTABs, have been detected in abiotic solid matrices.
“Novel PFAS such as 6:2 Cl-PFESA and its analogues, and 6:2 fluorotelomer sulphamide alkylbetaines (FTABs), have been detected in abiotic solid matrices [10].”
From Worldwide trends in tracing poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in the environment (2019) · cites this paper as [10]
Recent PFAS studies have revealed that numerous PFAS are continuously used and discharged into the global environment.
“Recent PFAS studies have revealed that numerous PFAS are continuously used and discharged into the global environment [10,54,90].”
From Worldwide trends in tracing poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in the environment (2019) · cites this paper as [10]
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- Authors
- Xiao, F.
- Affiliations
- University of North Dakota (US)
- Corresponding author
- Xiao, Feng
- ORCID
- Xiao, Feng
- Venue
- Water Research
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2017-11
- Volume
- 124
- Pages
- 482-495
- ISSN
- 0043-1354 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2734664239
- Cited by
- 634
- References
- 14
- Citations by year
- 2026: 65 · 2025: 82 · 2024: 76 · 2023: 88 · 2022: 81 · 2021: 79 · 2020: 73 · 2019: 60 · 2018: 25 · 2017: 4
- FWCI
- 4.91
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Water Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- University of North Dakota Early Career Award (20622-4000-02545)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Life Sciences › Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics › Pharmaceutical Science › Fluorine in Organic Chemistry
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Environmental Chemistry and Analysis
- Keywords
- per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, PFAS, PFOS, perfluorooctanoic acid, aquatic environment, PFAS detection, drinking water treatment, wastewater treatment, PFAS removal, PFAS transformation, precursors, bioaccumulation, environmental fate, zwitterion
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Fluorocarbons, Sewage, Surface-Active Agents, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Wastewater
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