Occurrence of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) in N.E. Spanish surface waters and their removal in a drinking water treatment plant that combines conventional and advanced treatments in parallel lines
Abstract
Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) are two emerging contaminants that have been detected in all environmental compartments. However, while most of the studies in the literature deal with their presence or removal in wastewater treatment, few of them are devoted to their detection in treated drinking water and fate during drinking water treatment. In this study, analyses of PFOS and PFOA have been carried out in river water samples and in the different stages of a drinking water treatment plant (DWTP) which has recently improved its conventional treatment process by adding ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis in a parallel treatment line. Conventional and advanced treatments have been studied in several pilot plants and in the DWTP, which offers the opportunity to compare both treatments operating simultaneously. From the results obtained, neither preoxidation, sand filtration, nor ozonation, removed both perfluorinated compounds. As advanced treatments, reverse osmosis has proved more effective than reverse electrodialysis to remove PFOA and PFOS in the different configurations of pilot plants assayed. Granular activated carbon with an average elimination efficiency of 64±11% and 45±19% for PFOS and PFOA, respectively and especially reverse osmosis, which was able to remove ≥99% of both compounds, were the sole effective treatment steps. Trace levels of PFOS (3.0-21 ng/L) and PFOA (<4.2-5.5 ng/L) detected in treated drinking water were significantly lowered in comparison to those measured in precedent years. These concentrations represent overall removal efficiencies of 89±22% for PFOA and 86±7% for PFOS.
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For a DWTP with pre-chlorination/dioxychlorination, coagulation, flocculation, settling, sand filtration, raw groundwater dilution, ((ozonation and GAC filtration) and (ultrafiltration, UV disinfection, RO, and remineralization with calcite) in parallel lines), and post-chlorination treating river water, overall removal was 89 ± 22% for PFOA and 86 ± 7% for PFOS.
“Flores et al. [49] reported 89 ± 22% overall removal of PFOA and 86 ± 7% overall removal of PFOS for the DWTP (with the treatment train consisting of pre-chlorination/dioxychlorination, coagulation, flocculation, settling, sand filtration, raw groundwater dilution, ((ozonation and GAC filtration) and (ultrafiltration, UV disinfection, RO, and remineralization with calcite) in parallel lines), and”
From A Mini-Review of Full-Scale Drinking Water Treatment Plants for Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Removal: Possible Solutions and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as Flores et al. [49]
Membrane filtration (NF or RO) has been reported in parallel with other processes such as GAC in drinking water treatment, with each line/process contributing a percentage of the total drinking water flow.
“According to [48,49], use of a membrane filtration process (NF or RO) has been reported in parallel with other processes such as GAC, in which each line/process can contribute to a percentage of the total drinking water flow [48,49].”
From A Mini-Review of Full-Scale Drinking Water Treatment Plants for Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Removal: Possible Solutions and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [49]
Use of a membrane filtration process (NF or RO) has been reported in parallel with other processes such as GAC, in which each line/process can contribute to a percentage of the total drinking water flow.
“According to [48,49], use of a membrane filtration process (NF or RO) has been reported in parallel with other processes such as GAC, in which each line/process can contribute to a percentage of the total drinking water flow [48,49].”
From A Mini-Review of Full-Scale Drinking Water Treatment Plants for Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Removal: Possible Solutions and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [49]
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Degradation of pharmaceuticals by ultrasound-based advanced oxidation process
Rayaroth, M. P., Aravind, U. K., & Aravindakumar, C. T. (2016) · Environmental Chemistry Letters · doi:10.1007/s10311-016-0568-0 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
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BackgroundRemediation of water from per-/poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)–Challenges and perspectives
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- Authors
- Flores, C., Ventura, F., Martin-Alonso, J., & Caixach, J.
- Affiliations
- Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (ES)
- Corresponding author
- Caixach, Josep
- Venue
- Science of The Total Environment
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2013-09
- Volume
- 461-462
- Pages
- 618-626
- ISSN
- 0048-9697 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2083188777
- Cited by
- 221
- References
- 82
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 22 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 18 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 3
- FWCI
- 10.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- The Science of The Total Environment (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DIGITAL.CSIC (Spanish National Research Council (CSIC)) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Centro para el Desarrollo Tecnológico Industrial
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Water Treatment and Disinfection
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Advanced oxidation water treatment
- Keywords
- PFOS, perfluorooctanoic acid, perfluorinated compounds, drinking water treatment, reverse osmosis, reverse electrodialysis, granular activated carbon, ozonation, sand filtration, pre-oxidation, ultrafiltration, river pollution, emerging contaminants, removal efficiency
- MeSH terms
- Caprylates, Charcoal, Chromatography, Liquid, Filtration, Fluorocarbons, Fresh Water, Spain, Water Supply, Alkanesulfonic Acids, Water Purification, Tandem Mass Spectrometry
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