Virtual reality exposure therapy for PTSD Vietnam veterans: A case study

Rothbaum, Barbara Olasov; Hodges, Larry; Alarcon, Renato; Ready, David; Shahar, Fran; Graap, Ken; Pair, Jarrel; Hebert, Philip; Gotz, Dave; Wills, Brian; Baltzell, David

doi:10.1023/a:1024772308758

Cited by 329Posttraumatic Stress Disorder ResearchVirtual Reality Applications and ImpactsSimulation and Modeling Applications

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 35 of the 35 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Virtual reality exposure therapy for PTSD Vietnam veterans: A case study

Rothbaum, Barbara Olasov, Hodges, Larry, Alarcon, Renato, Ready, David, Shahar, Fran, Graap, Ken, Pair, Jarrel, Hebert, Philip, Gotz, Dave, Wills, Brian, Baltzell, David·1999·Journal of Traumatic Stress

DOI 10.1023/a:1024772308758

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Virtual reality (VR) integrates real‐time computer graphics, body tracking devices, visual displays, and other sensory input devices to immerse a participant in a computer‐generated virtual environment that changes in a natural way with head and body motion. VR exposure (VRE) is proposed as an alternative to typical imaginal exposure treatment for Vietnam combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This report presents the results of the first Vietnam combat veteran with PTSD to have been treated with VRE. The patient was exposed to two virtual environments, a virtual Huey helicopter flying over a virtual Vietnam and a clearing surrounded by jungle. The patient experienced a 34% decrease on clinician‐rated PTSD and a 45% decrease on self‐rated PTSD. Treatment gains were maintained at 6‐month follow‐up.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1023/a:1024772308758

Cites

35 of 35 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

The review identified that virtual reality exposure therapy was very effective for war PTSD.
“Three studies11,27,32 indicated that virtual reality exposure therapy was very effective for war posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).”
From Game-based digital interventions for depression therapy: a systematic review and meta-analysis (2014) · cites this paper as [27]
The unique experience of virtual reality exposure therapy was reported to be particularly effective for reducing depression caused by fear.
“The unique experience of virtual reality exposure therapy was reported to be particularly effective for reducing depression caused by fear.27,32”
From Game-based digital interventions for depression therapy: a systematic review and meta-analysis (2014) · cites this paper as [27]

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
Williams, J. B. W., & First, M. B. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199975839.013.104 · Cited by 109,842
An inventory for measuring depression
BECK, A. T. (1961) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1961.01710120031004 · Cited by 38,032
Impact of Event Scale: A Measure of Subjective Stress
Horowitz, M., Wilner, N., & Alvarez, W. (1979) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/00006842-197905000-00004 · Cited by 7,813
Emotional processing of fear: Exposure to corrective information.
Foa, E. B., & Kozak, M. J. (1986) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.99.1.20 · Cited by 5,396
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition
(2013) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596.893619 · Cited by 4,407
Manual for the state-trait anxiety inventory (form Y) : "self-evaluation questionnaire"
Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L., & Lushene, R. E. (1970) · Consulting Psychologists Press eBooks · Cited by 2,352
Beck Depression Inventory
(2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/springerreference_179754 · Cited by 2,095
Behavioral/cognitive conceptualizations of post-traumatic stress disorder
Foa, E. B., Steketee, G., & Rothbaum, B. O. (1989) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(89)80067-x · Cited by 1,518
Self-citation
Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in rape victims: A comparison between cognitive-behavioral procedures and counseling.
Foa, E. B., Rothbaum, B. O., Riggs, D. S., & Murdock, T. B. (1991) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.59.5.715 · Cited by 1,444
Self-citation
Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in rape victims: a comparison between cognitive-behavioral procedures and counseling
Foa, E. B., Rothbaum, B. O., Riggs, D. S., & Murdock, T. B. (1991) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.59.5.715 · Cited by 1,444 · cited 1×
“As in standard imaginal exposure for PTSD (e.g., Foa, Rothbaum, Riggs, & Murdock, 1991 ), the patient was asked to recount these memories in the present tense repeatedly until his anxiety decreased.”
MethodSelf-citation
Assessment of Anger: The State-Trait Anger Scale
Butcher, J. N., & Spielberger, C. D. (2013) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · doi:10.4324/9781315825656-12 · Cited by 1,239
A clinician rating scale for assessing current and lifetime PTSD. The CAPS-1
Blake, D. D., Weathers, F. W., Nagy, L., Kaloupek, D. G., Klauminzer, G. W., Charney, D. S., & Keane, T. M. (1990) · Behavior Therapy · Cited by 1,123
Advances in personality assessment
Kline, P. (1983) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(83)90068-5 · Cited by 976
Psychophysiologic assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder imagery in Vietnam combat veterans
Pitman, R. K. (1987) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1987.01800230050009 · Cited by 758
Effectiveness of computer-generated (virtual reality) graded exposure in the treatment of acrophobia
(1995) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.152.4.626 · Cited by 694
Self-citation
Verbal Conditioning: Method, Process, or Principle?
Spielberger, C. D. (1970) · Contemporary Psychology · doi:10.1037/013734 · Cited by 580
Implosive (flooding) therapy reduces symptoms of PTSD in Vietnam combat veterans
Keane, T. M., Fairbank, J. A., Caddell, J. M., & Zimering, R. T. (1989) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(89)80072-3 · Cited by 538
State‐Trait Anger Expression Inventory
Spielberger, C. D. (2010) · The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology · doi:10.1002/9780470479216.corpsy0942 · Cited by 443
Virtual reality and tactile augmentation in the treatment of spider phobia: a case report
Carlin, A. S., Hoffman, H. G., & Weghorst, S. J. (1997) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(96)00085-x · Cited by 442
Psychiatric complications during flooding therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder.
Pitman, R. K., Altman, B., Greenwald, E., Longpre, R. E., Macklin, M. L., Poiré, R. E., & Steketee, G. S. (1991) · PubMed · Cited by 385
Etiology of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Vietnam veterans: Analysis of premilitary, military, and combat exposure influences.
Foy, D. W., Sipprelle, R. C., Rueger, D. B., & Carroll, E. M. (1984) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.52.1.79 · Cited by 355
The prevalence of lifetime and partial post-traumatic stress disorder in Vietnam theater veterans
Weiss, D. S., Marmar, C. R., Schlenger, W. E., Fairbank, J. A., Jordan, B. K., Hough, R. L., & Kulka, R. A. (1992) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.2490050304 · Cited by 283
Imaginal flooding as a supplementary treatment for PTSD in combat veterans: A controlled study
Cooper, N. A., & Clum, G. A. (1989) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(89)80057-7 · Cited by 281
Virtual reality graded exposure in the treatment of acrophobia: A case report
ROTHBAUM, B. O., Hodges, L. F., Rob Kooper, A., Opdyke, D., Williford, J. S., & North, M. M. (1995) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(05)80100-5 · Cited by 278
Self-citation
Etiology of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Vietnam veterans: Analysis of premilitary, military, and combat exposure influences.
Foy, D. W., Sipprelle, R. C., Rueger, D. B., et al. (1984) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.52.1.79 · Cited by 272
Physiological response to combat memories and preliminary treatment outcome in Vietnam veteran PTSD patients treated with direct therapeutic exposure
Boudewyns, P. A., & Hyer, L. A. (1990) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(05)80189-3 · Cited by 256
Psychophysiologic responses to combat imagery of Vietnam veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder versus other anxiety disorders.
Pitman, R. K., Orr, S. P., Forgue, D. F., Altman, B., de Jong, J. B., & Herz, L. R. (1990) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.99.1.49 · Cited by 239
Virtual environments for treating the fear of heights
Hodges, L. F., Rob Kooper, A., Meyer, T., ROTHBAUM, B. O., Opdyke, D., Graaff, J. J. D., Williford, J. S., & North, M. M. (1995) · Computer · doi:10.1109/2.391038 · Cited by 232
Self-citation
Cognitive-behavioral treatment for severe anger in posttraumatic stress disorder.
Chemtob, C. M., Novaco, R. W., Hamada, R. S., & Gross, D. M. (1997) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.65.1.184 · Cited by 223
Virtual reality exposure therapy in the treatment of fear of flying: a case report
ROTHBAUM, B. O., Hodges, L. F., Watson, B. A., Kessler, G. D., & Opdyke, D. (1996) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(96)00007-1 · Cited by 208
Self-citation
Psychophysiologic responses to combat imagery of Vietnam veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder versus other anxiety disorders.
Pitman, R. K., Orr, S. P., Forgue, D. F., et al. (1990) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.99.1.49 · Cited by 183
Cognitive-behavioral treatment for severe anger in posttraumatic stress disorder.
Chemtob, C. M., Novaco, R. W., Hamada, R. S., et al. (1997) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.65.1.184 · Cited by 162
The image of behavior therapy: It is time to take a stand
O’Leary, K. D. (1984) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(84)80025-8 · Cited by 27
Virtual reality and mixed reality in the treatment of spider phobia: A case report
Hoffman, H. G., Carlin, A. S., & Weghorst, S. J. (1997) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e705192011-004 · Cited by 4
Untitled work
(1998) · doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-0879(199809)5:3

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 5

First M. B., 1995, Structured Clinical Interview for DSM‐IV Axis I Disorders—Patient edition (SCID). Biometrics Research Dept.
Fontana A., 1993, The Long Journey Home III: The third progress report on the Department of Veterans Affairs specialized PTSD programs
Foy D. W. Glynn S. M. Friedman M. J. Schnurr P. P. Neilson N. Howard A. Schapiro J. A. Knight C. P. Morland L. A. &Gusman F. D.(1998).Trauma focus group treatment for combat‐related PTSD: Implementation data from a 10 site pilot study. Presented at the Lake George Research conference on Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. March.
Rothbaum B. O., 1992, Exposure therapy for rape victims with posttraumatic stress disorder, The Behavior Therapist, 15, 219
Steer R. A., 1988, Dictionarey of Behavioral Assessment Techniques

Sorted by citations

Clinician-administered PTSD scale: A review of the first ten years of research
Weathers, F. W., Keane, T. M., & Davidson, J. R. T. (2001) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.1029 · Cited by 1,903
From presence to consciousness through virtual reality.
Sanchez-Vives, M. V., & Slater, M. (2005) · Nature reviews. Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn1651 · Cited by 1,831
The use of virtual reality technology in the treatment of anxiety and other psychiatric disorders
Maples-Keller, J. L., Bunnell, B. E., Kim, S.-J., & Rothbaum, B. O. (2017) · Harvard Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/hrp.0000000000000138 · Cited by 862
“53 Early investigations into VRE for PTSD suggested that this treatment approach held promise for PTSD treatment in case studies 54–56 and open trial designs across a broad range of traumatic experiences.”
BackgroundSelf-citation
The application of virtual reality technology in rehabilitation.
Schultheis, M. T., & Rizzo, A. (2001) · Rehabilitation Psychology · doi:10.1037/0090-5550.46.3.296 · Cited by 744
A domain-independent framework for modeling emotion
Gratch, J. S., & Marsella, S. (2004) · Cognitive Systems Research · doi:10.1016/j.cogsys.2004.02.002 · Cited by 748
Virtual reality social cognition training for young adults with high-functioning autism
Kandalaft, M. R., Didehbani, N., Krawczyk, D. C., Allen, T. T., & Chapman, S. B. (2013) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-012-1544-6 · Cited by 697
Virtual reality exposure therapy of anxiety disorders: A review
Krijn, M., Emmelkamp, P. M. G., Olafsson, R. P., & Biemond, R. (2004) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2004.04.001 · Cited by 492
Virtual Reality in Psychotherapy: Review
Riva, G. (2005) · CyberPsychology & Behavior · doi:10.1089/cpb.2005.8.220 · Cited by 532
From Pavlov to PTSD: The extinction of conditioned fear in rodents, humans, and anxiety disorders
VanElzakker, M. B., Kathryn Dahlgren, M., Caroline Davis, F., Dubois, S., & Shin, L. M. (2014) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2013.11.014 · Cited by 482
A Literature Overview of Virtual Reality (VR) in Treatment of Psychiatric Disorders: Recent Advances and Limitations
Park, M. J., Kim, D. J., Lee, U., Na, E. J., & Jeon, H. J. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00505 · Cited by 437
Fear Extinction in Traumatized Civilians with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Relation to Symptom Severity
Norrholm, S. D., Jovanovic, T., Olin, I. W., Sands, L. A., Karapanou, I., Bradley, B., & Ressler, K. J. (2011) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.09.013 · Cited by 397
Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy for the Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Following September 11, 2001
Difede, J., & Cukor, J. (2007) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.v68n1102 · Cited by 357
Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Children and Adolescents
Cohen, J. A., Mannarino, A. P., Berliner, L., & Deblinger, E. (2000) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/088626000015011007 · Cited by 332
Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy for World Trade Center Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: A Case Report
Difede, J., & Hoffman, H. G. (2002) · CyberPsychology & Behavior · doi:10.1089/109493102321018169 · Cited by 320
Exposure therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder
Rothbaum, B. O., & Schwartz, A. C. (2002) · American Journal of Psychotherapy · doi:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.2002.56.1.59 · Cited by 313
Self-citation
Virtual reality exposure therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): a meta-analysis
Kothgassner, O. D., Goreis, A., Kafka, J. X., Van Eickels, R. L., Plener, P. L., & Felnhofer, A. (2019) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008198.2019.1654782 · Cited by 246
Clinical Virtual Reality tools to advance the prevention, assessment, and treatment of PTSD
Rizzo, A. ‘., & Shilling, R. (2017) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008198.2017.1414560 · Cited by 241
Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy and Standard (in Vivo) Exposure Therapy in the Treatment of Fear of Flying
Rothbaum, B. O., Anderson, P., Zimand, E., Hodges, L., Lang, D., & Wilson, J. (2006) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2005.04.004 · Cited by 240
Self-citation
An Experimental Study on Fear of Public Speaking Using a Virtual Environment
Slater, M., Pertaub, D.-P., Barker, C., & Clark, D. M. (2006) · CyberPsychology & Behavior · doi:10.1089/cpb.2006.9.627 · Cited by 239
Emerging treatments for PTSD
Cukor, J., Spitalnick, J. S., Difede, J., Rizzo, A., & ROTHBAUM, B. O. (2009) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.09.001 · Cited by 250
Self-citation
Virtual reality exposure-based therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder: a review of its efficacy, the adequacy of the treatment protocol, and its acceptability
Botella, C., Serrano, B., baños, R., & García-Palacios, A. (2015) · Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment · doi:10.2147/ndt.s89542 · Cited by 223
Game-based digital interventions for depression therapy: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Li, J., Theng, Y.-L., & Foo, S. (2014) · Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2013.0481 · Cited by 219
Redefining therapeutic success with virtual reality exposure therapy
Garcia-Palacios, A., Hoffman, H. G., Kwong See, S., Tsai, A., & Botella, C. (2001) · CyberPsychology & Behavior · doi:10.1089/109493101300210231 · Cited by 212
Virtual reality therapy for anxiety disorders: Advances in evaluation and treatment.
Wiederhold, B. K., & Wiederhold, M. D. (2005) · doi:10.1037/10858-000 · Cited by 199
Exploring the Use of Computer Games and Virtual Reality in Exposure Therapy for Fear of Driving Following a Motor Vehicle Accident
Walshe, D. G., Lewis, E. J., Kim, S. I., O'Sullivan, K., & Wiederhold, B. K. (2003) · CyberPsychology & Behavior · doi:10.1089/109493103322011641 · Cited by 193
Virtual Reality-Enhanced Extinction of Phobias and Post-Traumatic Stress
Maples‐Keller, J. L., Yasinski, C. W., Manjin, N., & ROTHBAUM, B. O. (2017) · Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1007/s13311-017-0534-y · Cited by 190
Self-citation
Virtual reality exposure therapy using a virtual Iraq: Case report
Gerardi, M., Rothbaum, B. O., Ressler, K., Heekin, M., & Rizzo, A. (2008) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.20331 · Cited by 187
Self-citation
Development and early evaluation of the Virtual Iraq/Afghanistan exposure therapy system for combat‐related PTSD
Rizzo, A. “., Difede, J., Rothbaum, B. O., Reger, G., Spitalnick, J., Cukor, J., & Mclay, R. (2010) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05755.x · Cited by 185
Self-citation
Virtual reality in anxiety disorders: the past and the future
Gorini, A., & Riva, G. (2008) · Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1586/14737175.8.2.215 · Cited by 184
Virtual Reality and Neuropsychology
Schultheis, M. T., Himelstein, J., & Rizzo, A. (2002) · Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation · doi:10.1097/00001199-200210000-00002 · Cited by 178
Virtual reality exposure in the treatment of social anxiety
Anderson, P. L., ROTHBAUM, B. O., & Hodges, L. F. (2003) · Cognitive and Behavioral Practice · doi:10.1016/s1077-7229(03)80036-6 · Cited by 168
Self-citation
Telemental health: A status update
Aboujaoude, E., Salame, W., & Naim, L. (2015) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.20218 · Cited by 154
Experiential Virtual Scenarios With Real-Time Monitoring (Interreality) for the Management of Psychological Stress: A Block Randomized Controlled Trial
Gaggioli, A., Pallavicini, F., Morganti, L., Serino, S., Scaratti, C., Briguglio, M., Crifaci, G., Vetrano, N., Giulintano, A., Bernava, G., et al. (2014) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.3235 · Cited by 164
Evaluating a Computational Model of Emotion
Gratch, J., & Marsella, S. (2005) · Autonomous Agents and Multi-Agent Systems · doi:10.1007/s10458-005-1081-1 · Cited by 161
Retracted: Implementations of Virtual Reality for Anxiety-Related Disorders: Systematic Review
Oing, T., & Prescott, J. (2018) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/10965 · Cited by 157
Retracted
Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Other Anxiety Disorders
Gerardi, M., Cukor, J., Difede, J., Rizzo, A., & Rothbaum, B. O. (2010) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-010-0128-4 · Cited by 154
Self-citation
Virtual reality exposure therapy for the treatment of fear of flying: A controlled investigation.
Maltby, N., Kirsch, I., Mayers, M., & Allen, G. J. (2002) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.70.5.1112 · Cited by 147
Virtual reality for psychotherapy: Current reality and future possibilities.
Glanz, K., Rizzo, A., & Graap, K. M. (2003) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/0033-3204.40.1-2.55 · Cited by 142
Self-citation
Computer treatment for common mental health problems.
Cavanagh, K., & Shapiro, D. (2004) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.10261 · Cited by 166
Advances in the use of virtual reality to treat mental health conditions
Bell, I. H., Pot-Kolder, R., Rizzo, A., Rus-Calafell, M., Cardi, V., Cella, M., Ward, T., Riches, S., Reinoso, M., Thompson, A., et al. (2024) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-024-00334-9 · Cited by 140
Overview: Virtual Reality in Medicine
Pensieri, C., & Pennacchini, M. (2014) · Journal of Virtual Worlds Research · doi:10.4101/jvwr.v7i1.6364 · Cited by 140
The role of psychophysiology in forensic assessments: Deception detection, ERPs, and virtual reality mock crime scenarios
Mertens, R., & Allen, J. J. B. (2007) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2007.00615.x · Cited by 137
Computer‐supported cognitive behavioral treatment of anxiety disorders
Anderson, P. L., Jacobs, C. H., & ROTHBAUM, B. O. (2004) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.10262 · Cited by 141
Self-citation
A review on Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality use-cases of Brain Computer Interface based applications for smart cities
Kohli, V., Tripathi, U., Chamola, V., Rout, B. K., & Kanhere, S. S. (2021) · Microprocessors and Microsystems · doi:10.1016/j.micpro.2021.104392 · Cited by 134
The Use of Virtual Reality in Acrophobia Research and Treatment
Coelho, C. M., Waters, A. M., Hine, T. J., & Wallis, G. (2009) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2009.01.014 · Cited by 127
Updating fearful memories with extinction training during reconsolidation: a human study using auditory aversive stimuli
Oyarzún, J. P., Lopez-Barroso, D., Fuentemilla, L., Cucurell, D., Pedraza, C., Rodriguez-Fornells, A., & de Diego-Balaguer, R. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0038849 · Cited by 125
Virtual Reality and Psychotherapy
Botella, C., Soledad, Q., Baños, R., Perpiñá, C., García‐Palacios, A., & Giuseppe, R. (2004) · Studies in health technology and informatics · doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-943-1-37 · Cited by 121
Better, Virtually: the Past, Present, and Future of Virtual Reality Cognitive Behavior Therapy
Lindner, P. (2021) · International Journal of Cognitive Therapy · doi:10.1007/s41811-020-00090-7 · Cited by 120
Virtual reality exposure therapy for combat‐related posttraumatic stress disorder
ROTHBAUM, B. O., Rizzo, A., & Difede, J. (2010) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05691.x · Cited by 117
Self-citation
A preliminary report on the use of virtual reality technology to elicit craving and cue reactivity in cocaine dependent individuals
Saladin, M. E., Brady, K. T., Graap, K. M., & ROTHBAUM, B. O. (2006) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2006.01.004 · Cited by 114
Self-citation
Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy
ROTHBAUM, B. O. (2010) · The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology · doi:10.1002/9780470479216.corpsy1024 · Cited by 110
Self-citation
Exposure therapy in the treatment of PTSD among cocaine-dependent individuals: description of procedures
Back, S. E., Dansky, B. S., Carroll, K. M., Foa, E. B., & Brady, K. T. (2001) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/s0740-5472(01)00181-7 · Cited by 107
Neuropsychological Rehabilitation: The International Handbook
(2017) · doi:10.4324/9781315629537 · Cited by 108
Evidence‐based treatments for PTSD, new directions, and special challenges
Cukor, J., Olden, M., Lee, F. L. F., & Difede, J. (2010) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05793.x · Cited by 105
Comparing Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy to Present-Centered Therapy with 11 U.S. Vietnam Veterans with PTSD
Ready, D. J., Gerardi, R. J., Burridge, A. B., Mascaro, N., & ROTHBAUM, B. O. (2010) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2009.0239 · Cited by 103
Self-citation
PTSD Elderly War Veterans: A Clinical Controlled Pilot Study
Gamito, P., Oliveira, J., Rosa, P., Morais, D., Duarte, N., Oliveira, S., & Saraiva, T. (2010) · Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2009.0237 · Cited by 101
The use of virtual reality in psychiatry: A review
Kim, S., & Kim, E. (2020) · Journal of the Korean Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.5765/jkacap.190037 · Cited by 99
Fractured Phenomenologies: Thought Insertion, Inner Speech, and the Puzzle of Extraneity
LANGLAND‐HASSAN, P. (2008) · Mind & Language · doi:10.1111/j.1468-0017.2008.00348.x · Cited by 97
Design and testing of a virtual environment to train stroke patients with unilateral spatial neglect to cross a street safely
Weiss, P. L., Naveh, Y. Y., & Katz, N. (2003) · Occupational Therapy International · doi:10.1002/oti.176 · Cited by 97
Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in military and veteran populations.
Creamer, M. C., & Forbes, D. (2004) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/0033-3204.41.4.388 · Cited by 96
Vagus nerve stimulation promotes generalization of conditioned fear extinction and reduces anxiety in rats
Noble, L. J., Meruva, V. B., Hays, S. A., Rennaker, R. L., Kilgard, M. P., & McIntyre, C. K. (2018) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2018.09.013 · Cited by 94
Temporal and Spatial Variations in Presence: Qualitative Analysis of Interviews from an Experiment on Breaks in Presence
Garau, M., Friedman, D. A., Widenfeld, H. R., Antley, A., Brogni, A., & Slater, M. (2008) · PRESENCE Virtual and Augmented Reality · doi:10.1162/pres.17.3.293 · Cited by 93
LESSONS FROM EMOTION PSYCHOLOGY FOR THE DESIGN OF LIFELIKE CHARACTERS
Gratch, J. S., & Marsella, S. (2005) · Applied Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1080/08839510590910156 · Cited by 93
Cybertherapy: Internet and Virtual Reality as Assessment and Rehabilitation Tools for Clinical Psychology and Neuroscience
Riva, G. (2004) · Cited by 84
A Virtual Space for All: Exploring Children's Experience in Social Virtual Reality
Maloney, D., Freeman, G., & Robb, A. C. (2020) · Annual Symposium on Computer-Human Interaction in Play · doi:10.1145/3410404.3414268 · Cited by 84
Virtual Reality in Psychotherapy
Diemer, J., Pauli, P., & Mühlberger, A. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.21070-2 · Cited by 85
Virtual reality: Using the virtual world to improve quality of life in the real world
Anderson, P. L., Rothbaum, B. O., & Hodges, L. F. (2001) · Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic · doi:10.1521/bumc.65.1.78.18713 · Cited by 76
Self-citation
Toward a validation of cyber-interventions for stress disorders based on stress inoculation training: a systematic review
Serino, S., Triberti, S., Villani, D., Cipresso, P., Gaggioli, A., & Riva, G. (2014) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-013-0237-6 · Cited by 75
Affective Computing: Historical Foundations, Current Applications, and Future Trends
Daily, S. B., James, M. T., Cherry, D., Porter, J. J., Darnell, S. S., Isaac, J., & Roy, T. (2017) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-801851-4.00009-4 · Cited by 74
Combat-Related Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: A Case Report Using Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy with Physiological Monitoring
Wood, D. P., Murphy, J. L., McLay, R. N., Reeves, D., Pyne, J. M., Shilling, R. D., & Wiederhold, B. K. (2007) · CyberPsychology & Behavior · doi:10.1089/cpb.2006.9951 · Cited by 73
A virtual reality exposure therapy application for Iraq war military personnel with post traumatic stress disorder: From training to toy to treatment
Rizzo, A., Pair, J., Graap, K. M., Manson, B., McNerney, P. J., Wiederhold, B. K., Wiederhold, M. D., & Spira, J. L. (2006) · Cited by 71
Self-citation
Interaction and presence in the clinical relationship: virtual reality (VR) as communicative medium between patient and therapist
Riva, G., Molinari, E., & Vincelli, F. (2002) · IEEE Transactions on Information Technology in Biomedicine · doi:10.1109/titb.2002.802370 · Cited by 65
Behavioral mechanisms of context fear generalization in micePreprint
Huckleberry, K. A., Ferguson, L. B., & Drew, M. R. (2016) · Learning & Memory · doi:10.1101/lm.042374.116 · Cited by 71
Therapy in virtual environments--clinical and ethical issues
Yellowlees, P. M., Holloway, K. M., & Parish, M. B. (2012) · Telemedicine and e-Health · doi:10.1089/tmj.2011.0195 · Cited by 63
Virtual environments in clinical psychology.
Riva, G. (2003) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/0033-3204.40.1-2.68 · Cited by 65
Virtual Realities in the Treatment of Mental Disorders: A Review of the Current State of Research
Eichenberg, C., & Wolters, C. (2012) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/50094 · Cited by 62
A data-centric artificial intelligent and extended reality technology in smart healthcare systems
Shaikh, T. A., Dar, T. R., & Sofi, S. A. (2022) · Social Network Analysis and Mining · doi:10.1007/s13278-022-00888-7 · Cited by 69
Interreality in Practice: Bridging Virtual and Real Worlds in the Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorders
Riva, G., Raspelli, S., Algeri, D., Pallavicini, F., Gorini, A., Wiederhold, B. K., & Gaggioli, A. (2010) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2009.0320 · Cited by 62
Virtual reality as a mechanism for exposure therapy
de Carvalho, M. R., Freire, R. C. R., & Nardi, A. E. (2010) · The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.3109/15622970802575985 · Cited by 60
Does virtual reality reduce pain in pediatric patients? A systematic review
Iannicelli, A. M., Vito, D., Dodaro, C. A., Matteo, P. D., Nocerino, R., Sepe, A. O., & Raia, V. (2019) · The Italian Journal of Pediatrics/Italian journal of pediatrics · doi:10.1186/s13052-019-0757-0 · Cited by 59
Global Storm of Stress-Related Psychopathological Symptoms: A Brief Overview on the Usefulness of Virtual Reality in Facing the Mental Health Impact of COVID-19
Imperatori, C., Dakanalis, A., Farina, B., Pallavicini, F., Colmegna, F., Mantovani, F., & Clerici, M. (2020) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2020.0339 · Cited by 58
Psychological Treatments for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Recommendations for the Clinician Based on a Review of the Literature
Robertson, M. S., Humphreys, L., & RAY, R. (2004) · Journal of Psychiatric Practice · doi:10.1097/00131746-200403000-00005 · Cited by 58
A Randomized, Head-to-Head Study of Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
McLay, R. N., Baird, A., Webb-Murphy, J., Deal, W., Tran, L., Anson, H., Klam, W., & Johnston, S. (2017) · Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2016.0554 · Cited by 57
A Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy Application for Iraq War Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
Pair, J., Allen, B. F., Dautricourt, M., Treskunov, A., Liewer, M., Graap, K., & Reger, G. M. (2006) · IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces (VR) · doi:10.1109/vr.2006.23 · Cited by 56
Self-citation
Alternatives to Debriefing and Modifications to Cognitive Behavior Therapy for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Belaise, C., Fava, G. A., & Marks, I. M. (2005) · Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics · doi:10.1159/000085144 · Cited by 55
Presence-Inducing Media for Mental Health Applications
Riva, G., Botella, C., Baños, R., Mantovani, F., García-Palacios, A., Quero, S., Serino, S., Triberti, S., Repetto, C., Dakanalis, A., et al. (2015) · Immersed in Media · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-10190-3_12 · Cited by 55
Presence and the Aura of Meaningful Places
MacIntyre, B., Bolter, J. D., & Gandy, M. (2004) · Cited by 54
Stepped Care and e-Health
Draper, C., & O’Donohue, W. (2010) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-6510-3 · Cited by 57
Virtual Reality as a Tool for Cognitive Behavioral Therapy: A Review
Scozzari, S., & Gamberini, L. (2011) · Studies in computational intelligence · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-17824-5_5 · Cited by 52
Design and Evaluation of Affective Virtual Reality System Based on Multimodal Physiological Signals and Self-Assessment Manikin
Liao, D. K., Shu, L., Liang, G., Li, Y., Zhang, Y., Zhang, W., & Xu, X. (2019) · IEEE Journal of Electromagnetics RF and Microwaves in Medicine and Biology · doi:10.1109/jerm.2019.2948767 · Cited by 54
Posttraumatic stress disorder: possibilities for olfaction and virtual reality exposure therapy
Aiken, M. P., & Berry, M. J. (2015) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-015-0260-x · Cited by 51
Augmenting the Reality of Phantom Limbs: Three Case Studies Using an Augmented Mirror Box Procedure
Desmond, D. M., O'Neill, K., de Paor, A. M., McDarby, G., & MacLachlan, M. (2006) · JPO Journal of Prosthetics and Orthotics · doi:10.1097/00008526-200607000-00005 · Cited by 51
Virtual reality exposure therapy for school phobia
Gutiérrez‐Maldonado, J., Magallón-Neri, E. M., Rus‐Calafell, M., & Peñaloza, C. (2009) · RECERCAT (Consorci de Serveis Universitaris de Catalunya) · Cited by 48
Virtual Reality Exposure for Veterans with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Ready, D. J., Pollack, S. J., ROTHBAUM, B. O., & Alarcón, R. D. (2006) · Journal of Aggression Maltreatment & Trauma · doi:10.1300/j146v12n01_11 · Cited by 48
Self-citation
Building virtual reality fMRI paradigms: A framework for presenting immersive virtual environments
Mueller, C., Lührs, M., Baecke, S., Adolf, D., Lützkendorf, R., Luchtmann, M., & Bernarding, J. (2012) · Journal of Neuroscience Methods · doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2012.06.025 · Cited by 51
The VEPSY Updated Project: Virtual Reality in Clinical Psychology
Riva, G., Alcañíz, M., Anolli, L., Bacchetta, M., Baños, R., Beltrame, F., Botella, C., Galimberti, C., Gamberini, L., Gaggioli, A., et al. (2001) · CyberPsychology & Behavior · doi:10.1089/109493101750527006 · Cited by 47
Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy for Anxiety Disorders: Small Samples and No Controls?
Page, S., & Coxon, M. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00326 · Cited by 46
Virtual reality applications for exposure
Bouchard, S., Côté, S., & Richard, D. C. S. (2007) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012587421-2/50017-x · Cited by 46
Development and Clinical Results from the Virtual Iraq Exposure Therapy Application for PTSD
Rizzo, A., Newman, B., Parsons, T. D., Reger, G. M., Holloway, K. M., Gahm, G., Rothbaum, B. O., Difede, J., McLay, R. N., Johnston, S. L., et al. (2009) · International Conference on Virtual Rehabilitation · doi:10.1109/icvr.2009.5174198 · Cited by 42
Self-citation
Clinician Perceptions of Virtual Reality to Assess and Treat Returning Veterans
Kramer, T. L., Pyne, J. M., Kimbrell, T. A., Savary, P. E., Smith, J. L., & Jegley, S. M. (2010) · Psychiatric Services · doi:10.1176/ps.2010.61.11.1153 · Cited by 41

Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy for Vietnam Veterans With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Rothbaum, B. O., Hodges, L. F., Ready, D. J., Graap, K. M., & Alarcón, R. D. (2001) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.v62n0808 · Cited by 531
Self-citation
Virtual Reality Exposure for Veterans with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Ready, D. J., Pollack, S. J., ROTHBAUM, B. O., & Alarcón, R. D. (2006) · Journal of Aggression Maltreatment & Trauma · doi:10.1300/j146v12n01_11 · Cited by 48
Self-citation
Comparing Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy to Present-Centered Therapy with 11 U.S. Vietnam Veterans with PTSD
Ready, D. J., Gerardi, R. J., Burridge, A. B., Mascaro, N., & ROTHBAUM, B. O. (2010) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2009.0239 · Cited by 103
Self-citation
Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy for Military Veterans with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Systematic Review
Seitz, C. A., Poyrazlı, Ş., Harrisson, M. A., Flickinger, T., & Turkson, M. A. (2014) · The New School psychology bulletin · Cited by 9
Virtual reality exposure therapy for active duty soldiers
Reger, G. M., & Gahm, G. A. (2008) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.20512 · Cited by 124

Authors: Rothbaum, B. O., Hodges, L., Alarcon, R., Ready, D., Shahar, F., Graap, K., Pair, J., Hebert, P., Gotz, D., Wills, B., & Baltzell, D.
Affiliations: Emory University (US)
Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
Atlanta VA Medical Center (US)
Corresponding author: Rothbaum, Barbara Olasov
ORCID: Rothbaum, Barbara Olasov
Hodges, Larry
Shahar, Fran
Venue: Journal of Traumatic Stress
Publisher: Wiley
Published: 1999-04
Volume: 12
Issue: 2
Pages: 263-271
ISSN: 0894-9867 (ISSN-L)
1573-6598
DOI: 10.1023/a:1024772308758
OpenAlex: W2117071555
Cited by: 328
References: 32
Citations by year: 2026: 9 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 18 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 15
FWCI: 7.71
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor, 2282 d)
Locations: Journal of Traumatic Stress (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (5r21mh055555-02)
National Institute of Mental Health (5 R21 MH55555-02)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts
Physical Sciences › Engineering › Control and Systems Engineering › Simulation and Modeling Applications
Keywords: virtual reality exposure therapy, post-traumatic stress disorder, Vietnam War veterans, combat veterans, Vietnam War, virtual worlds, treatment outcomes, maintenance therapy
MeSH terms: Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Reality Therapy, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Veterans, Vietnam, Warfare

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Virtual reality exposure therapy for PTSD Vietnam veterans: A case study

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks