The DOI matches its Crossref record; 70 of the 71 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 12 of the 36 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Optimizing distributed practice
Open accessAbstract
More than a century of research shows that increasing the gap between study episodes using the same material can enhance retention, yet little is known about how this so-called distributed practice effect unfolds over nontrivial periods. In two three-session laboratory studies, we examined the effects of gap on retention of foreign vocabulary, facts, and names of visual objects, with test delays up to 6 months. An optimal gap improved final recall by up to 150%. Both studies demonstrated nonmonotonic gap effects: Increases in gap caused test accuracy to initially sharply increase and then gradually decline. These results provide new constraints on theories of spacing and confirm the importance of cumulative reviews to promote retention over meaningful time periods.
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Claims the paper makes
32 Own result · 18 Own interpretation · 13 Own method · 9 No basis given · 7 Partly supported · 4 Sources not found · 3 No full text of the sources · 2 Couldn’t confirm · 2 Not checked yet · 1 Supported · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“A recent literature review (Cepeda et al., 2006) found just 14 studies that provided comparisons of very short (less than three hours) and long (one day or more) gaps with test delays of one day or more”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > Distributed Practice: Basic Phenomena
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Cepeda et al., 2006 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The review reports that the literature does not fully represent combinations of inter-study intervals and test delays (Spacing Effects, p. 8), and calls for more studies with educationally relevant intervals (Limitations, p. 14). These passages support the claim that evidence for such comparisons was limited, but our copy does not establish the specific count of 14 studies meeting the stated gap and test-delay thresholds. (LLM, conf=0.78)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In each study, a one-or-more day gap was superior to a very short gap.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > Distributed Practice: Basic Phenomena
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Cepeda et al., 2006 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Educational Implications section (p. 14) supports a benefit from gaps of at least one day for long-term retention, and the Limitations section (p. 14) says multi-day spacing outperforms spacing of a few minutes for long-term retention. The paper does not establish that this comparison favored the longer gap in each of the 14 studies; its lag analysis (p. 8) finds little, if any, effect at retention intervals shorter than one day. (LLM, conf=0.83)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“First, optimal gap increases as a function of test delay.”
- Also stated in: § Additional information · plain
“Optimal gap increases as test delay increases, and the ratio of optimal gap to test delay decreases as test delay increases.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > General Discussion
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Cepeda et al. (2006) source
The General Discussion (p. 11) states that the optimal inter-study interval increased as the retention interval increased. This directly supports the cited claim that the best gap rises with test delay. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Additional information · plain
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Second, the ratio of optimal gap to test delay appears to decrease as a function of test delay.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > General Discussion
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Cepeda et al. (2006) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The General Discussion (p. 11) says that the optimal inter-study interval increases as the retention interval increases. It does not establish the more specific claim that the optimal interval becomes a decreasing fraction of the test delay. (LLM, conf=0.78)
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“review, as compared to testing with feedback, is a poor way to restudy information (Pashler, Cepeda, Wixted, & Rohrer, 2005).”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > Practical Implications
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Pashler, Cepeda, Wixted, & Rohrer, 2005 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results and Discussion (page unavailable) report that correct-answer feedback after an incorrect response improved one-week retention compared with no feedback. But the paper does not compare testing with feedback against review or restudy, so it does not establish that review is a poor restudy method. (LLM, conf=0.83)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Increases in gap beyond a single day produced a small but relatively steady decline in final-test scores, with recall accuracy decreasing just 11% as gap increased from 1 to 14 days.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > Results and Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was a main effect of gap, F(5,176) = 3.7, p < .005.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > Results and Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Recall improved by 34% as gap increased from zero to one day.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > Results and Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Both studies demonstrated non-monotonic gap effects: Increases in gap caused test accuracy to initially sharply increase and then gradually decline.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > Abstract
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The first test of Session 2 measured retention after a single exposure period, and these data therefore show a traditional forgetting function.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > Results and Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 27
- Probably not a substantial claim. 15
- The quote only partly states this claim. 2
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“Including gaps of at least one day insures that the range includes at least one night of sleep, which may play a significant role in memory retention”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > Theoretical Constraints
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites Peigneux, Laureys, Delbeuck, & Maquet, 2001 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The indexed copy returns a repository listing and bibliography, but no passage from the paper’s body addressing whether a night of sleep aids memory retention. Searches for post-training sleep, overnight consolidation, and memory retention found no usable body-text passage; the repository abstract is not evidence under this rubric. (LLM, conf=0.70)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Could not verify
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The possibility that test accuracy might follow an inverted U-function of gap has been suggested by previous authors”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > INSERT FIGURE 1 ABOUT HERE
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Balota, Duchek & Paullin, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Glenberg, 1976 source
- Partly supportedcites Glenberg & Lehmann, 1980 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and General Discussion (pages unavailable in our copy) say that recall varies with the gap between repetitions. They describe a proportionality rule: recall increases with spacing when the retention interval is relatively long, but decreases with spacing when it is relatively short. They do not suggest an inverted-U curve with a peak at an intermediate gap. (LLM, conf=0.82)
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“area has had little effect on educational practice (Dempster, 1988(Dempster, , 1989;;Pashler, Rohrer, Cepeda, & Carpenter, 2007).”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > Abstract
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites Dempster, 1988 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited DOI identifies a horticulture paper, not an education paper, and it is not indexed in Semantic Scholar; its text and abstract were unavailable for verification. A snippet from “Beyond Time-on-Task: The Relationship Between Spaced Study and Certification in MOOCs” says the spacing effect was slow to enter educational practice and cites a Dempster (1988) work, suggesting the citing document may have linked to the wrong Dempster paper. That secondary snippet does not establish that the horticulture paper makes the claim, but the unavailable source text also prevents the definitive check required for a misattribution verdict. (LLM, conf=0.78)
- Could not verifycites Dempster, 1989 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The supplied DOI identifies Dempster’s *Theory and Applications of Belief Functions*, a different topic from distributed practice; two searches within that paper returned no snippets supporting the claim. An unscoped snippet in *Beyond Time-on-Task: The Relationship Between Spaced Study and Certification in MOOCs* says the spacing effect was slow to enter educational practice and attributes that observation to Dempster (1988), but its score is only 0.517. This suggests the supplied source is a bibliographic mismatch, but the available evidence does not establish the intended work strongly enough for a misattribution verdict under the specified threshold. (LLM, conf=0.72)
- Supportedcites Pashler, Rohrer, Cepeda, & Carpenter, 2007 source
The passage labeled Abstract says Dempster’s description of the failure to apply spacing research remains apt and reports little evidence that classrooms, instructional texts, or software attend to the temporal distribution of study. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Could not verify
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“Welborn (1933) used a 28-day test delay, but also omitted feedback from Session 2, implying that the second session probably provided no opportunity for learning those items not learned during Session 1”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > Distributed Practice: Basic Phenomena
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Welborn (1933)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Could not verifycites Pashler, Cepeda, Wixted, & Rohrer, 2005 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Materials and stimuli section says this paper’s own Session 2 occurred about one week later and gave no feedback. Searches for Welborn, 1933, and a 28-day delay found no passage describing Welborn’s study or supporting the inference about its second session. (LLM, conf=0.75)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Additionally, Gagné et al. state that distributed practice improves concept learning but we have found no existing studies in the literature that support this claim, and our recent studies fail to support this claim (Pashler, Rohrer, Cepeda, & Carpenter, 2007).”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > Practical Implications
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Pashler, Rohrer, Cepeda, & Carpenter, 2007 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The section “Spacing in perceptual categorization learning” reports no spacing benefit in the authors’ recent categorization studies, supporting that part of the claim. It says this task is “almost absent” from the spacing literature, not that no existing study supports distributed practice for concept learning. The paper also reports a spacing benefit for learning a mathematical principle, so its negative finding should not be generalized to all concept learning. (LLM, conf=0.85)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An optimal gap improved final recall by up to 150%.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Tukey HSD tests show that the zero-day gap produced significantly worse recall than the 1, 2, 4, and 7-day gaps; no other pair-wise comparisons were significant.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > Results and Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Likewise, performance on the third and final test of Session 1 showed no main effect or interaction involving gap, although facts showed slightly greater learning than pictures (94 vs. 90%), F(1,155) = 10.3, p < .005.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > INSERT TABLE 2 ABOUT HERE
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The data from this group are qualitatively and quantitatively consistent with the three-month gap data and the literature more broadly.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At very short test delays, on the order of minutes, the ratio is close to 1.0; at multiday test delays, the ratio is closer to 0.1.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > General Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the 28-day gap produced 151% greater retention than the 0-day gap, whereas the 1day gap produced only an 18% improvement over the 0-day gap.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > INSERT TABLE 2 ABOUT HERE
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Second, gap had nonmonotonic effects on final recall even with test delays longer than a week; accuracy first increased and then decreased as gap increased.”
- Also stated in: § INSERT FIGURE 5 ABOUT HERE · boosted
“Studyphase retrieval theories predict -and our data show -an inverted-U shaped function of gap on performance following a test delay.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > General Discussion
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § INSERT FIGURE 5 ABOUT HERE · boosted
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“First-test accuracy ranged from 75 -82% by gap for facts and from 45 -64% by gap for objects.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > INSERT TABLE 2 ABOUT HERE
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Fits of this function to the data in Experiments 1, 2 (facts), and 2 (objects) produced optimal test scores of 71%, 52%, and 21%, respectively, and optimal gaps of 3.7, 25.6, and 37.1 days, respectively.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > General Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The quadratic-in-log-gap function is an adequate description of the relationship between gap and final test score, despite not being theoretically motivated.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There were main effects of gap, F(5,155) = 8.3, p < .001,and material, F(1,155) = 502.2,p < .001,and an interaction between gap and material, F(5,155) = 4.6, p < .005.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > INSERT FIGURE 4 ABOUT HERE INSERT TABLE 3 ABOUT HERE
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These studies suggest that a gap of roughly one day is optimal, but they hardly demonstrate this claim with any certainty, especially given the restricted set of test delays used.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > Distributed Practice: Basic Phenomena
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“(Subjects were not taught to criterion in the second learning session, as they were in the first, because that would have confounded gap and the number of trials required during the second session, as explained in the Introduction.)”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > INSERT FIGURE 2 ABOUT HERE
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Few data speak to retention overnight, much less over weeks or months.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Subjects were randomly assigned to one of six conditions (0, 1, 2, 4, 7, or 14 day gap).”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > Materials.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because no one has quantitatively characterized the nature of distributed practice functions over time intervals much beyond a day”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > Theoretical Constraints
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“yet little is known about how this socalled distributed practice effect unfolds over nontrivial periods”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Instead, the present findings, in conjunction with the literature, are consistent with the possibility that the optimal gap increases with test delay, albeit as a declining proportion of test delay.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > General Discussion
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For each subject, items that were answered correctly during the pretest were excluded from analysis of their data, leading to the exclusion of less than one percent of items, on average.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > INSERT TABLE 2 ABOUT HERE
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Quite dramatically, this demonstrates that a one-day gap is not always optimal, since zero-and one-day gaps were not significantly different, and recall was significantly worse for one-day versus 28-day gaps.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > INSERT FIGURE 4 ABOUT HERE INSERT TABLE 3 ABOUT HERE
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, because these four studies and Experiment 1 used approximately equal test delays, the possibility remains that a much longer test delay would yield an optimal gap other than one day.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > INSERT TABLE 1 ABOUT HERE INSERT FIGURE 3 ABOUT HERE
hedgedconditional- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Table 2 shows fewer subjects in the six-month gap condition, partly due to the increased difficulty maintaining contact with these subjects; otherwise, dropout rates did not vary across conditions.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > INSERT TABLE 1 ABOUT HERE INSERT FIGURE 3 ABOUT HERE
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Subjects in the six-month gap condition were equivalent to other subjects on a wide range of demographic measures.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Morrison et al. (2001) suggest writing facts over and over to learn them; this prescription for massed practice and overlearning is a highly inefficient use of time (Rohrer, Taylor, Pashler, Wixted, & Cepeda, 2005).”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > Practical Implications
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Rohrer, Taylor, Pashler, Wixted, & Cepeda, 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Those texts that mention the distributed practice effect often devote a paragraph or less to the topic”
- Also stated in: § Practical Implications · plain
“and offer widely divergent suggestionsmany incorrect -about how long the lag between study sessions ought to be”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > Practical Implications
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Glaser, 2000
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Jensen, 1998
- Not matchedcites Ormrod, 1998
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Practical Implications · plain
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This suggests that the 28day gap was optimal and supports a claim that final-test recall gradually declines with too-long gaps.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > INSERT FIGURE 4 ABOUT HERE INSERT TABLE 3 ABOUT HERE
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Pilot testing confirmed that the options in the multiple-choice test were about equally likely to be chosen by subjects with no previous knowledge of the fact or object.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > Materials.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Subjects were randomly assigned to one of six conditions (0, 1, 7, 28, 84, or 168 day gap).”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > Materials.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All coding was done blind to experimental condition.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > INSERT TABLE 2 ABOUT HERE
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The quote only partly states this claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The interaction between gap and material likely reflects the different degrees of improvement, relative to baseline, for fact versus visual object materials; there are no obvious qualitative differences in the results.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > INSERT FIGURE 4 ABOUT HERE INSERT TABLE 3 ABOUT HERE
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because pilot data suggested that Swahili-English word pairs (which were used in Experiment 1) would produce floor effects after a 6-month test delay, we chose material that was shown to produce lesser rates of forgetting.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > INSERT TABLE 1 ABOUT HERE INSERT FIGURE 3 ABOUT HERE
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The material chosen for Experiment 2 produces lesser rates of forgetting than Swahili-English word pairs.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Both a published encoding variability model (Raaijmakers, 2003) and our own preliminary modeling efforts (Mozer, Cepeda, Pashler, Wixted, & Cepeda, 2008) lend support to this theory.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > INSERT FIGURE 5 ABOUT HERE
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Raaijmakers, 2003
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Mozer, Cepeda, Pashler, Wixted, & Cepeda, 2008
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because we only used a limited range of gaps in the present studies, and the true optimal gap in each of our studies might be slightly shorter or longer than the observed optimal gap, our current data neither support nor refute the existence of a further decreasing ratio, within the multi-day test delay period.”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > Additional information
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
The laboratory materials and tasks used in the studies are educationally relevant and representative of real-world learning.
“The material was again educationally relevant: Not-well-known facts and names of unfamiliar visually presented objects.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The test delays used (10 days and 6 months) are educationally meaningful.
“when the retention interval was educationally meaningful.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The distributed practice effects observed in these laboratory tasks generalize to real-world educational contexts.
“confirm the importance of cumulative reviews to promote retention over meaningful time periods”
The paper relies on this without support.
The material chosen for Experiment 2 produces lesser rates of forgetting than Swahili-English word pairs.
“we chose material that was shown to produce lesser rates of forgetting.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The facts and objects used in Experiment 2 are not well-known to the subjects.
“a list of 23 notwell-known facts was assembled”
The paper relies on this without support.
The simulated classroom setting is representative of actual classroom learning.
“The experiment was conducted in a simulated classroom setting in a windowless room.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The quadratic-in-log-gap function is an adequate description of the relationship between gap and final test score, despite not being theoretically motivated.
“Although this function is not theoretically motivated, its parameters are meaningful.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The findings will generalize to classroom settings, at least for learning 'cut and dry' material.
“If these findings generalize to a classroom setting -and we expect they will, at least with regard to learning”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Also, there is evidence from lab experiments with just one re-exposure that the optimal interstudy interval depends on the retention interval (Cepeda et al., 2009).”
From The Distributed Practice Effect on Classroom Learning: A Meta-Analytic Review of Applied Research (2025) · cites this paper as Cepeda et al., 2009
In the citing paper
“Reactivation of memory traces may constitute an additional temporal substrate that underlies the longest reported effective intervals, on the order of a week71.”
From The right time to learn: Mechanisms and optimization of spaced learning (2016) · cites this paper as [71]
In the citing paper
“For verbal learning with a retention interval of 6 months, a training interval of 7 days was superior to an interval of 3 days71.”
From The right time to learn: Mechanisms and optimization of spaced learning (2016) · cites this paper as [71]
In the citing paper
“For example, in human verbal learning, an interesting positive correlation exists between the length of inter-trial intervals for effective spaced learning and the retention interval (that is, the interval between the final training trial and the test of memory retention).”
From The right time to learn: Mechanisms and optimization of spaced learning (2016) · cites this paper as [71]
In the citing paper
“In humans, a number of cognitive models have been proposed to explain the superiority of spaced training or practice1,30, but no consensus has emerged as to their usefulness or generality31.”
From Computational design of enhanced learning protocols (2012) · cites this paper as [31]
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- ConsistentF(5, 176) = 3.7reported p < .005 · recomputed p = .003
“F(5,176) = 3.7, p < .005”
- ConsistentF(1, 155) = 254.9reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(1,155) = 254.9,p < .001”
- ConsistentF(1, 155) = 10.3reported p < .005 · recomputed p = .002
“F(1,155) = 10.3, p < .005”
- ConsistentF(5, 155) = 8.3reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(5,155) = 8.3, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(1, 155) = 502.2reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(1,155) = 502.2,p < .001”
- ConsistentF(5, 155) = 4.6reported p < .005 · recomputed p < .001
“F(5,155) = 4.6, p < .005”
- ConsistentF(5, 155) = 4.9reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(5,155) = 4.9, p < .001”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“28 84 -0.57-11.3 84 168 0.08 1.6 28 168 -0.25 -4.8 0 28 1.56 25.5 28 168 0.51 -9.8”
§ Running head: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE OVER MULTI-DAY INTERVALS Optimizing Distributed Practice: Theoretical Analysis and Practical Implications > Additional information
Reported -4.8 · recomputed -9.7
Citations
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1177/1529100612453266 · Cited by 3,138
Spacing Effects in Learning: A Temporal Ridgeline of Optimal Retention
Cepeda, N. J., Vul, E., Rohrer, D., Wixted, J. T., & Pashler, H. (2008) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02209.x · Cited by 631
Self-citationCarpenter, S. K., Cepeda, N. J., Rohrer, D., Kang, S. H. K., & Pashler, H. (2012) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-012-9205-z · Cited by 469
“However, reviews of the literature on spacing have revealed that an increase in the duration of the spacing gap does not always produce superior memory retention (e.g., Cepeda et al., 2009; Cepeda et al., 2006; Donovan & Radosevich, 1999; Glenberg, 1976; Verkoeijen, Rikers, & Özsoy, 2008).”
BackgroundSelf-citationSpaced Repetition Promotes Efficient and Effective Learning: Policy Implications for Instruction
Kang, S. H. K. (2016) · Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1177/2372732215624708 · Cited by 408
“This phenomenon is called the spacing effect (sometimes also referred to as the benefit of distributed practice) and was first observed by researchers over a century ago (Ebbinghaus, 1885/1913).”
BackgroundGreater Neural Pattern Similarity Across Repetitions Is Associated with Better Memory
Xue, G., Dong, Q., Chen, C., Lu, Z., Mumford, J. A., & Poldrack, R. A. (2010) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1193125 · Cited by 383
Personalized Education in the Artificial Intelligence Era: What to Expect Next
Maghsudi, S., Lan, A., Xu, J., & van der Schaar, M. (2021) · IEEE Signal Processing Magazine · doi:10.1109/msp.2021.3055032 · Cited by 383
“Personalized and profession-oriented production, recommendation, and maintenance of contents [51], [23], [22], [20] .”
BackgroundThe right time to learn: Mechanisms and optimization of spaced learning
Smolen, P., Zhang, Y., & Byrne, J. H. (2016) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn.2015.18 · Cited by 326
Recent research on human learning challenges conventional instructional strategies
Rohrer, D., & Pashler, H. (2010) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x10374770 · Cited by 269
“A similar reversal is sometimes caused by spacing (e.g., Bregman, 1967; Cepeda et al., 2009; Landauer & Bjork, 1978).”
BackgroundResultSelf-citation(2010) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(10)53003-2 · Cited by 255
“…the nonmonotonic relationships between spacing interval and retention interval which are observed in cued-recall tasks at very long delays (see Cepeda et al., 2009; 2006; Cepeda, Vul, Rohrer, Wixted, & Pashler, 2008), because it predicts that memory performance should increase with spacing…”
BackgroundInterleaving Helps Students Distinguish among Similar Concepts
Rohrer, D. (2012) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-012-9201-3 · Cited by 237
“The spacing effect has been demonstrated in hundreds of studies, including ones with learningmaterials drawn from the classroom (e.g., Austin 1921; Bahrick and Phelps 1987; Bird 2010; Bloom and Shuell 1981; Carpenter et al. 2009; Cepeda et al. 2009; Reynolds and Glaser 1964; Metcalfe et al. 2007; Seabrook et al. 2005).”
BackgroundSelf-citationSpacing effects in real‐world classroom vocabulary learning
Sobel, H. S., Cepeda, N. J., & Kapler, I. V. (2011) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1747 · Cited by 183
Self-citationNakata, T. (2015) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263114000825 · Cited by 179
“In other words, although an ISI of 1 day may be significantly more effective than an ISI of 5 min (Cepeda et al., 2009 ), for instance, there may be only a small difference between the effects of 5-min and 10-min ISIs (see Crothers & Suppes, 1967 ; Logan & Balota, 2008 ; Pyc & Rawson, 2007 , for…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialUllman, M. T., & Lovelett, J. T. (2016) · Second language Research · doi:10.1177/0267658316675195 · Cited by 169
“…retention for a week requires the sessions to be spaced apart by about 20 to 40% of this period (about 2 days), whereas the optimal gap for maximizing retention for a year requires sessions to be spaced apart by only about 5%–10% of this period (about 25 days) (Cepeda et al., 2008, 2009).”
BackgroundIncreasing Retention Without Increasing Study Time
Rohrer, D., & Pashler, H. (2007) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00500.x · Cited by 153
Self-citationLearning from feedback: Spacing and the delay–retention effect.
Smith, T. A., & Kimball, D. R. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0017407 · Cited by 127
“According to theories of spacing effects, the inverted-U shape of the lag effect curve results from the composition of a forgetting function with a response strengthening function (Cepeda et al., 2009).”
BackgroundEffects of distributed practice on the acquisition of second language English syntax
BIRD, S. (2010) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716410000172 · Cited by 117
The Effects of Spaced Practice on Second Language Learning: A Meta‐Analysis
Kim, S. K., & Webb, S. (2022) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/lang.12479 · Cited by 119
Conceptualising spaced learning in health professions education: A scoping review
Versteeg, M., Hendriks, R. A., Thomas, A., Ommering, B. W. C., & Steendijk, P. (2020) · Medical Education · doi:10.1111/medu.14025 · Cited by 107
Toppino, T. C., & Gerbier, É. (2013) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800090-8.00004-4 · Cited by 122
The effect of distributed practice: Neuroscience, cognition, and education
Gerbier, É., & Toppino, T. C. (2015) · Trends in Neuroscience and Education · doi:10.1016/j.tine.2015.01.001 · Cited by 122
Rosenbaum, R. S., Kim, A. S. N., & Baker, S. (2017) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.21037-7 · Cited by 111
Making long-term memories in minutes: a spaced learning pattern from memory research in education
Kelley, P., & Whatson, T. S. (2013) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00589 · Cited by 125
“Despite recent careful analysis of the temporal patterns demonstrating effective recall of word pairs and other tasks (Cepeda et al., 2006; Pavlik and Anderson, 2008; Cepeda et al., 2009) and despite specific programmes based on the approach (Carpenter et al.”
BackgroundMethodKapler, I. V., Weston, T., & Wiseheart, M. (2015) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2014.11.001 · Cited by 101
Student Instruction Should Be Distributed Over Long Time Periods
Rohrer, D. (2015) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9332-4 · Cited by 106
Self-citationLyle, K. B., Bego, C. R., Hopkins, R. F., Hieb, J. L., & Ralston, P. A. S. (2020) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-019-09489-x · Cited by 103
Nakata, T. (2016) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263116000280 · Cited by 111
“Previous research on the distributed practice effect suggests that short spacing tends to be effective at a short retention interval, whereas long spacing tends to be effective at a long retention interval (e.g., Bird, 2010; Cepeda et al., 2006, 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialA Meta-Analytic Review of the Benefit of Spacing out Retrieval Practice Episodes on Retention
Latimier, A., Peyre, H., & Ramus, F. (2021) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-020-09572-8 · Cited by 96
“…between study episodes promotes better retention than massed practice (i.e., study episodes occurring in one single session without inter-study intervals) and optimally counteract forgetting by improving the consolidation of newly learned information (Cepeda et al., 2009; McDaniel et al., 2013b).”
BackgroundRetrieval practice over the long term: Should spacing be expanding or equal-interval?
Kang, S. H. K., Lindsey, R. V., Mozer, M. C., & Pashler, H. (2014) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-014-0636-z · Cited by 90
Self-citationEffects of distributed practice on the proceduralization of morphology
Suzuki, Y., & DEKEYSER, R. M. (2015) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/1362168815617334 · Cited by 88
DOES STUDYING VOCABULARY IN SMALLER SETS INCREASE LEARNING?
Nakata, T., & Webb, S. (2015) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263115000236 · Cited by 92
“…generally leads to better long-term retention than shorter spacing (e.g., Bahrick & Phelps, 1987 ; Cepeda, Vul, Rohrer, Wixted, & Pashler, 2008 ; Cepeda et al., 2009 ; Karpicke & Bauernschmidt, 2011 ; Kornell, 2009 ; Metcalfe, Kornell, & Finn, 2009 ; Pashler, Zarow, & Triplett, 2003 ; Pyc &…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialUsing Testing as a Learning Tool
Yang, B. W., Razo, J. F., & Persky, A. M. (2019) · American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education · doi:10.5688/ajpe7324 · Cited by 98
“For longer-term retention of information, research has shown the longer intervals between sessions tend to be more effective than shorter intervals.(46,51,52) Other evidence suggests that the spacing interval should be 10% to 20% of the desired retention interval.”
BackgroundComputational design of enhanced learning protocols
Zhang, Y., Liu, R.-Y., Heberton, G. A., Smolen, P., Baxter, D. A., Cleary, L. J., & Byrne, J. H. (2012) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn.2990 · Cited by 80
“In humans, a number of cognitive models have been proposed to explain the superiority of spaced training or practice 1,30 , but no consensus has emerged as to their usefulness or generality 31 .”
BackgroundEvidence‐based teaching: Tools and techniques that promote learning in the psychology classroom
Dunn, D. S., Saville, B. K., Baker, S. C., & Marek, P. (2013) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/ajpy.12004 · Cited by 78
“Cepeda et al. (2009) suggested that the time between distributed study sessions that was associated with the best test performance seemed to increase as the time between the final study session and the test increased.”
BackgroundComparison of rest‐break interventions during a mentally demanding task
Blasche, G., Szabo, B., Wagner‐Menghin, M., Ekmekcioglu, C., & Gollner, E. (2018) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.2830 · Cited by 75
“Additional effects of rest breaks include an improvement of learning and retention (Cepeda et al., 2009; Donovan & Radosevich, 1999) and an enhancement of problem solving (Sio & Ormerod, 2009), as well as a reduction of physical discomfort (Barredo & Mahon, 2007).”
BackgroundSpacing Repetitions Over Long Timescales: A Review and a Reconsolidation Explanation
Smith, C., & Scarf, D. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00962 · Cited by 89
“Consistent with retrieval being more difficult, many studies of the spacing effect in language-related tasks observe that at the time of the repetition performance is worse for the spaced group than the massed group (Bjork and Allen, 1970; Glenberg, 1976; Cepeda et al., 2009).”
BackgroundResultSpaced Noninvasive Brain Stimulation
Goldsworthy, M. R., Pitcher, J. B., & Ridding, M. C. (2014) · Neurorehabilitation and neural repair · doi:10.1177/1545968314562649 · Cited by 78
“This nonmonotonic relationship between spacing interval and the magnitude and duration of induced aftereffects is similar to that reported in animal models investigating late-phase LTP(24) and is also consistent with behavioral findings in studies investigating spaced learning and long-term memory.(60,71,72) Second, i…”
ResultJones, C. D., Clark, S., & Reutzel, D. R. (2012) · Early Childhood Education Journal · doi:10.1007/s10643-012-0534-9 · Cited by 73
“Research on mastery of item sets such as AK has shown that instructional review cycles should take place between 10 and 20 % of the total time period for which an item is to be remembered (Cepeda et al. 2009; Rohrer and Pashler 2010).”
Carvalho, P. F., & Goldstone, R. L. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00505 · Cited by 78
“For instance, imagine that learners were given the task of learning categories A, B and C, each composed of several items (A1, A2, B1, and so on).”
BackgroundMethodA comparative analysis of massed vs. distributed practice on basic math fact fluency growth rates
Schutte, G. M., Duhon, G. J., Solomon, B. G., Poncy, B. C., Moore, K., & Story, B. (2015) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2014.12.003 · Cited by 70
Age/order of acquisition effects and the cumulative learning of foreign words: A word training study
Izura, C., Sánchez, M. Á. P., Agallou, E., Wright, V. C., Marín, J., Stadthagen-González, H., & Ellis, A. W. (2010) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2010.09.002 · Cited by 68
“Could age/order of acquisition effects be explained in terms of differences in the temporal distribution of training on early versus late items? Unfortunately, relating OoA effects to the issue of massed versus distributed practice is complicated by the fact that, as Cepeda et al. (2006) observed, the vast majority of…”
BackgroundSuzuki, Y. (2017) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/lang.12236 · Cited by 63
Kuepper-Tetzel, C. E., Kapler, I. V., & Wiseheart, M. (2014) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-014-0394-1 · Cited by 65
Improving Learning Efficiency of Factual Knowledge in Medical Education
Yeh, D. D., & Park, Y. S. (2015) · Journal of surgical education · doi:10.1016/j.jsurg.2015.03.012 · Cited by 66
The lag effect in secondary school classrooms: Enhancing students’ memory for vocabulary
Kuepper-Tetzel, C. E., Erdfelder, E., & Dickhäuser, O. (2013) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-013-9285-2 · Cited by 65
The spacing effect stands up to big data
Kim, A.-L. S., Wong-Kee-You, A., Wiseheart, M., & Rosenbaum, R. S. (2019) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-018-1184-7 · Cited by 59
Nakata, T. (2014) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/1362168814541721 · Cited by 64
“, Cepeda et al., 2008; Metcalfe et al., 2009; Rohrer et al., 2005). Feedback timing was confounded with lag to test in other existing studies as well (e.g., Kulhavy & Anderson, 1972; O’Neill, Rasor, & Bartz, 1976; Swindell & Walls, 1993). Third, as described above, Metcalfe et al. (2009) observe that delayed feedback…”
BackgroundCannon‐Bowers, J. A., Bowers, C. A., & Procci, K. (2010) · Surgical Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.suc.2010.02.006 · Cited by 57
“A well-developed body of literature suggests that spaced practice is superior over massed practice for long-term retention.(26,27,28) A meta-analysis conducted by Cepeda and colleagues(29) found that performance using spaced as opposed to”
BackgroundEffects of interleaved and blocked study on delayed test of category learning generalization
Carvalho, P. F., & Goldstone, R. L. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00936 · Cited by 61
“…between verbatim repetitions during study confers significant mnemonic benefits (Glenberg, 1976; Glenberg and Lehmann, 1980; Pashler et al., 2007; Cepeda et al., 2009; Delaney et al., 2010) and it has been proposed that interleaved study benefits for learning are at least in part due to the…”
BackgroundInfluentialLearning Second Language Syntax Under Massed and Distributed Conditions
Rogers, J. (2015) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.1002/tesq.252 · Cited by 53
Dignam, J. K., Rodriguez, A. D., & Copland, D. A. (2015) · PM&R · doi:10.1016/j.pmrj.2015.06.010 · Cited by 59
“In a meta-analysis of the verbal learning literature conducted by Cepeda et al [12] it was found that of 271 comparisons between massed versus distributed learning schedules, only 12 comparisons showed no effect or reduced performance for a distributed practice schedule.”
BackgroundMikula, B. D., & Heckler, A. F. (2017) · Physical Review Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.13.010122 · Cited by 55
Text entry using five to seven physical keys
Lockerman, E., Wu, S., Rao, A., et al. (2017) · Proceedings/Proceedings -- IEEE Symposium on Visual Languages and Human-Centric Computing · doi:10.1109/vlhcc.2017.8103481 · Cited by 49
“We ran a between-subjects longitudinal study, where each participant was assigned to one layout, and had 4 one-hour sessions separated by 24 to 48 hours since using a separation between 1 and 2 days has been shown to support learning over the course of a week [21].”
MethodLong-term memory. sleep, and the spacing effect
Bell, M. C., Kawadri, N., Simone, P. M., & Wiseheart, M. (2014) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2013.778294 · Cited by 47
Walsh, M. M., Gluck, K. A., Glenn Gunzelmann, A., Jastrzembski, T. S., & Krusmark, M. (2018) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.12602 · Cited by 46
“Cepeda et al. (2009) demonstrated a non-monotonic effect of ISI in two experiments.”
BackgroundThe Spacing Principle for Unlearning Abnormal Neuronal Synchrony
Popovych, O. V., Xenakis, M. N., & Tass, P. A. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0117205 · Cited by 48
“As known from pioneering studies on retrieving memories [29], experimental studies in several species addressing various aspects ranging from behavior to the underlying biochemical machinery [30–34], functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies on face recognition [35], studies on recall of word pairs and othe…”
BackgroundDivided attention: An undesirable difficulty in memory retention
Gaspelin, N., Ruthruff, E. D., & Pashler, H. (2013) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-013-0326-5 · Cited by 44
“The spacing effect is the most commonly cited desirable difficulty (Bjork & Allen, 1970; Cepeda et al., 2009; Cepeda, Pashler, Vul, Wixted, & Rohrer, 2006).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationA Covid-19 e a volta às aulas: ouvindo as evidências
Oliveira, J. B. A. E., Gomes, M., & Barcellos, T. (2020) · Ensaio Avaliação e Políticas Públicas em Educação · doi:10.1590/s0104-40362020002802885 · Cited by 58
Jones, C. D., & Reutzel, D. R. (2012) · Reading Psychology · doi:10.1080/02702711.2010.545260 · Cited by 44
“Recent research on instructional pacing has identified the law of 10/20 for optimal review cycle for memory set items such as AK (Cepeda et al., 2009; Cepeda, Vul, Rohrer, Wixted, & Pahsler, 2008; Pashler et al., 2007; Rohrer & Pashler, 2010).”
BackgroundExploring the learning burden and decay of foreign language vocabulary knowledge
Barclay, S., & Pellicer‐Sánchez, A. (2021) · ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1075/itl.20011.bar · Cited by 18
“This one-day between-session interval was chosen as it has been shown to facilitate retention (Cepeda et al., 2009; Dumay & Gaskell, 2007).”
MethodKwon, Y. H., Kwon, J. W., & Lee, M.-H. (2015) · Journal of Physical Therapy Science · doi:10.1589/jpts.27.769 · Cited by 43
Input spacing and the learning of L2 vocabulary in a classroom context
Rogers, J., & Cheung, A. (2018) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/1362168818805251 · Cited by 43
Linares, R., Borella, E., Lechuga, M. T., Carretti, B., & Pelegrina, S. (2019) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0211321 · Cited by 38
The Influence of a Brief Mindfulness Exercise on Encoding of Novel Words in Female College Students
Bonamo, K. K., Legerski, J., & Thomas, K. B. (2014) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-014-0285-3 · Cited by 46
Unifying practice schedules in the timescales of motor learning and performance
Verhoeven, F. M., & Newell, K. M. (2018) · Human Movement Science · doi:10.1016/j.humov.2018.04.004 · Cited by 42
Understanding the Distributed Practice Effect
Kuepper-Tetzel, C. E. (2014) · Zeitschrift für Psychologie · doi:10.1027/2151-2604/a000168 · Cited by 52
The impact of coaching on the emotional and social intelligence competencies of leaders
Dippenaar, M., & Schaap, P. (2017) · South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences · doi:10.4102/sajems.v20i1.1460 · Cited by 42
“It has been found that short and regular development sessions in combination with feedback are more effective than longer but less frequent sessions (Cepeda et al. 2009).”
BackgroundWalsh, M. M., Krusmark, M. A., Jastrembski, T., Hansen, D. A., Honn, K. A., & Gunzelmann, G. (2023) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-022-01361-8 · Cited by 35
“Laboratory studies have since returned to designs where spacing is manipulated by varying elapsed time between two or more study sessions delivered on different days (Carpenter et al., 2009; Cepeda et al., 2009; Gerbier et al., 2015; Kapler et al., 2015; Küpper-Tetzel et al., 2014; Rawson & Dunlosky, 2013; Rawson et a…”
MethodCumulative versus end‐of‐course assessment: effects on self‐study time and test performance
Kerdijk, W., Cohen‐Schotanus, J., Mulder, B. F., Muntinghe, F. L. H., & Tio, R. A. (2015) · Medical Education · doi:10.1111/medu.12756 · Cited by 37
Nugteren, M. L., Jarodzka, H., Kester, L., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2018) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-018-9448-2 · Cited by 43
“Second, students could improve through practice (such as distributed practice, e.g., Cepeda et al. 2009).”
BackgroundParallels between spacing effects during behavioral and cellular learning
Kornmeier, J., & Sosic-Vasic, Z. (2012) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00203 · Cited by 37
“However, it turns out that this effect is non-monotonic: After a certain optimal spacing interval, memory performance declines again (Donovan and Radosevich, 1999; Toppino and Bloom, 2002; Cepeda et al., 2009).”
BackgroundLI, M., & DEKEYSER, R. (2019) · The Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/modl.12580 · Cited by 35
Spaced Digital Education for Health Professionals: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Martinengo, L., Ng, M. S. P., Ng, T. D. R., Ang, Y.-I., Jabir, A. I., Kyaw, B. M., & Car, L. T. (2024) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/57760 · Cited by 63
“Spaced education is an educational technique that promotes long-term knowledge retention via multiple repeated learning sessions separated by prespecified time intervals [19-21].”
Spacing Effects on Learning and Memory ☆
Carpenter, S. K. (2017) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.21054-7 · Cited by 52
Improvements to visual working memory performance with practice and feedback
Adam, K. C. S., & Vogel, E. K. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0203279 · Cited by 41
Johanson, C., Gutwin, C. A., Bowey, J. T., & Mandryk, R. L. (2019) · Annual Symposium on Computer-Human Interaction in Play · doi:10.1145/3311350.3347195 · Cited by 40
“Additionally, there is little agreement as to what length of rest optimizes the effect [118]—some suggest that longer breaks are more effective than shorter breaks [97], and others suggest that performance follows an inverted U function [16, 25].”
BackgroundResultKuepper-Tetzel, C. E., & Erdfelder, E. (2011) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2011.631550 · Cited by 34
“( 2009 ) investigated this effect at educationally relevant time scales.”
BackgroundCook, A., & Karakuş, O. (2024) · Knowledge-Based Systems · doi:10.1016/j.knosys.2024.112219 · Cited by 42
Traditional lectures versus active learning – A false dichotomy?
Dietrich, H., & Evans, T. (2022) · STEM Education · doi:10.3934/steme.2022017 · Cited by 53
Diminished But Not Forgotten: Effects of Aging on Magnitude of Spacing Effect Benefits
Simone, P. M., Bell, M. C., & Cepeda, N. J. (2012) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbs096 · Cited by 31
Self-citationApproximately Optimal Teaching of Approximately Optimal Learners
Whitehill, J., & Movellan, J. R. (2017) · IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies · doi:10.1109/tlt.2017.2692761 · Cited by 32
Heckler, A. F., & Mikula, B. D. (2016) · Physical Review Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.12.010134 · Cited by 32
Servant, M., Cassey, P., Woodman, G. F., & Logan, G. D. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000454 · Cited by 31
“Since Ebbinghaus (1885), behavioral studies have used retention or transfer tests to assess learning and evaluate the strength of long-term memory traces (e.g., Bahrick, Bahrick, Bahrick, & Bahrick, 1993; Cepeda et al., 2009; Logan, 1990; McAllister & Ley, 1972; Scarborough et al., 1979).”
Spacing Effects in Task Repetition Research
Rogers, J. (2022) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/lang.12526 · Cited by 29
Fisher, J. S., & Radvansky, G. A. (2019) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2019.104035 · Cited by 33
The Depletion–Power–Integration–Latency (DPIL) model of spaced and massed repetition
Sikström, S., & Jaber, M. Y. (2012) · Computers & Industrial Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.cie.2012.03.005 · Cited by 26
“A more specific finding of the study of Cepeda et al. (2006) is that the ISI producing the maximal retention increased as the retention interval increased. The result from this meta-analysis review is consistent with the experimental data analyzed here. In Wickelgren’s (1972) data the final retention interval ranged f…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialDOES IT MATTER WHEN YOU REVIEW?
Rogers, J., & Cheung, A. (2020) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263120000236 · Cited by 36
Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Parlett-Pelleriti, C., Moon, S. M., Evans, M., Kritzmacher, A., Reuter‐Lorenz, P. A., Shah, P., & Jonides, J. J. (2019) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbz090 · Cited by 28
“Specifically, the group showing the largest transfer effects completed one training session per day (as opposed to the groups that trained multiple times per day; Wang, Zhou, & Shah, 2014), which is consistent with a host of prior results demonstrating that distributed practice leads to better learning and retention t…”
ResultGerbier, É., & Koenig, O. (2011) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2011.600806 · Cited by 25
“The influential studies that have investigated the lag effect over a long timescale include Cepeda, Vul, Rohrer, Wixted, and Pashler (2008), Cepeda et al. (2009), Glenberg and Lehmann (1980), Bahrick, Bahrick, Bahrick, and Bahrick (1993), and Bahrick and Hall (2005).”
BackgroundResultPredicting and Improving Memory Retention: Psychological Theory Matters in the Big Data Era
Mozer, M. C., & Lindsey, R. (2016) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315413570-8 · Cited by 29
“Note that for educationally relevant RIs on the order of weeks and months, the Cepeda et al. (2009) result indicates that the effect of spacing can be tremendous: optimal spacing can double retention over massed practice.”
BackgroundSelf-citationVery Similar Spacing-Effect Patterns in Very Different Learning/Practice Domains
Kornmeier, J., Spitzer, M., & Sosic-Vasic, Z. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0090656 · Cited by 25
“the time between the last learning unit and the final test [2,19,29,30].”
BackgroundLong-term spacing effect benefits in developmental amnesia: Case experiments in rehabilitation.
Green, J. L., Weston, T., Wiseheart, M., & Rosenbaum, R. S. (2014) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000070 · Cited by 25
“…was semantically independent from the other word of the pair.1 To ensure that both H.C. and the control group learned the stimuli well during the initial episode, we used a computer program that implemented a learning-to-criterion requirement for the initial learning episode (Cepeda et al., 2009).”
MethodApplying spaced practice in the schools to teach math vocabulary
Petersen‐Brown, S., Lundberg, A. R., Ray, J. E., Dela Paz, I. N., Riss, C. L., & Panahon, C. J. (2019) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.22248 · Cited by 24
The advantage of mixing examples in inductive learning: a comparison of three hypotheses
Guzman-Munoz, F. J. (2017) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2015.1127331 · Cited by 22
“In addition, a delayed test was added to check the possibility that the effect of gap would show more strongly after a meaningful delay between study and test phases (Cepeda et al., 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialTeng, M. H. T., & Xu, J. (2022) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/13621688221077028 · Cited by 25
“We assume an interval of two weeks between retrievals of a target to be proper for productive learning of known words, based on the distributed practice effect that indicates larger spacing between learning episodes results in superior long-term retention (Cepeda et al., 2009; Nakata, 2017).”
Do students think that difficult or valuable materials should be restudied sooner rather than later?
Cohen, M. S., Yan, V. X., Halamish, V., & Bjork, R. A. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0032425 · Cited by 25
Distributed Practice: Rarely Realized in Self-Regulated Mathematical Learning
Barzagar Nazari, K., & Ebersbach, M. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02170 · Cited by 23
“The effect of distributed practice has been demonstrated under a great range of circumstances: with different materials (e.g., Carpenter et al., 2012), in different age groups (e.g., Toppino et al., 1991), and using different lags between the learning sessions (e.g., Cepeda et al., 2009).”
BackgroundTesting Sleep Consolidation in Skill Learning: A Field Study Using an Online Game
Stafford, T., & Haasnoot, E. (2016) · Topics in Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/tops.12232 · Cited by 20
Distributed practice. The more the merrier? A randomised bronchoscopy simulation study
Bjerrum, A., Εika, B., Charles, P., & Hilberg, O. (2016) · Medical Education Online · doi:10.3402/meo.v21.30517 · Cited by 22
“Consequently, the results of our study support a previously proposed association: that the size of the distributed practice effect appears to depend on task type and task complexity as well as the length of time in between practice sessions (2, 11).”
ResultEbersbach, M., & Nazari, K. B. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00811 · Cited by 23
“Based on previous research investigating the lag effect with regard to verbal material, we expected a shorter ISI of 1 day to be optimal for a RI of 1 week, and a longer ISI of 11 days to be optimal for a RI of 5 weeks (e.g., Cepeda et al., 2009; Küpper-Tetzel et al., 2014a).”
BackgroundMethodA Functional Contextualist Approach to Mastery Learning in Vocational Education and Training
Parker, D. A., & Roumell, E. A. L. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01479 · Cited by 28
Metadata
- Authors
- Cepeda, N. J., Coburn, N., Rohrer, D., Wixted, J. T., Mozer, M. C., & Pashler, H.
- Affiliations
- York University (CA)
- University of California San Diego (US)
- University of South Florida (US)
- University of Colorado Boulder (US)
- Venue
- Experimental Psychology
- Publisher
- Hogrefe Publishing Group
- Published
- 2009-01
- Volume
- 56
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 236-246
- ISSN
- 0949-3964 (ISSN-L)
- 1618-3169
- 2190-5142
- OpenAlex
- W1527475029
- Cited by
- 296
- References
- 71
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 23 · 2020: 25 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 17 · 2015: 19 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 20 · 2012: 12
- FWCI
- 5.00
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- escholarship.org
- Locations
- Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Digital Commons - University of South Florida (University of South Florida) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (0542013, 0720375)
- U.S. Department of Education
- Institute of Education Sciences
- University of California, San Diego
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Second Language Acquisition and Learning
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Keywords
- distributed practice, spacing effect, retention, foreign words, factual memory, object naming, long-term recall
- MeSH terms
- Attention, Humans, Memory, Short-Term, Paired-Associate Learning, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Practice, Psychological, Reading, Retention, Psychology, Speech Perception, Vocabulary, Multilingualism, Feedback, Psychological
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