A hypothesis-confirming bias in labeling effects
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Initial information has a great impact in priming and creating expectations, and thus can bias if and how subsequent information is processed.
“The idea behind LSU and LSU-E is that the initial information has a great impact in priming and creating expectations, and thus can bias if and how subsequent information is processed”
From Biased and biasing: the hidden bias cascade and bias snowball effects (2025) · cites this paper as Darley & Gross, 1983
Self-fulfilling prophecies can be pernicious when the beliefs at the center capture negative social conceptions, such as stereotypes, anxious expectations, fear, or hostility.
“Importantly, SFPs can be pernicious when the beliefs at the center of them capture negative social conceptions, for instance, stereotypes, anxious expectations, fear, or hostility (Darley and Gross 1983;Downey et al. 1998;Madon et al. 2018).”
From What Is the Function of Confirmation Bias? (2022) · cites this paper as Darley and Gross 1983
Prior research on self-serving biases and biased processing suggests that the bias results from selective information processing.
“Prior research on self-serving biases (Dunning, Meyerowitz and Holzberg, 1989), and on biased processing of information in general (Darley and Gross, 1983), suggests that the bias results from selective information processing.”
From Explaining Bargaining Impasse: The Role of Self-Serving Biases (1997) · cites this paper as Darley and Gross, 1983
Cites
On the psychology of prediction.
Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1973) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0034747 · Cited by 6,202 · see citing works
Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1968) · The Urban Review · doi:10.1007/bf02322211 · Cited by 3,878 · see citing works
THE WARM‐COLD VARIABLE IN FIRST IMPRESSIONS OF PERSONS
KELLEY, H. H. (1950) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1950.tb01260.x · Cited by 509 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The case for motivated reasoning.
Kunda, Z. (1990) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.480 · Cited by 9,022 · see citing works
Confirmation Bias: A Ubiquitous Phenomenon in Many Guises
Nickerson, R. S. (1998) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175 · Cited by 7,267 · see citing works
Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes
Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.102.1.4 · Cited by 6,682 · see citing works
Pager, D. (2003) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/374403 · Cited by 2,840 · see citing works
A question of belonging: Race, social fit, and achievement.
Walton, G. M., & Cohen, G. L. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.1.82 · Cited by 2,163 · see citing works
Confirmation, disconfirmation, and information in hypothesis testing
Klayman, J., & Ha, Y.-W. (1987) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.94.2.211 · Cited by 2,094 · see citing works
8 Social Hierarchy: The Self‐Reinforcing Nature of Power and Status
Magee, J. C., & Galinsky, A. D. (2008) · Academy of Management Annals · doi:10.5465/19416520802211628 · Cited by 2,385 · see citing works
The effect of patient race and socio-economic status on physicians' perceptions of patients
van Ryn, M., & Burke, J. (2000) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0277-9536(99)00338-x · Cited by 1,509 · see citing works
Feeling validated versus being correct: A meta-analysis of selective exposure to information
Hart, W., Albarracín, D., Eagly, A. H., Brechan, I., Lindberg, M. J., & Merrill, L. (2009) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0015701 · Cited by 1,292 · see citing works
Levin, I. P., & Gaeth, G. J. (1988) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/209174 · Cited by 1,172 · see citing works
Is the desire for status a fundamental human motive? A review of the empirical literature.
Anderson, C., Hildreth, J. A. D., & Howland, L. (2015) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0038781 · Cited by 1,133 · see citing works
Motivated inference: Self‐serving generation and evaluation of causal theories
Kunda, Z. (1987) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.53.4.636 · Cited by 1,059 · see citing works
Explaining Bargaining Impasse: The Role of Self-Serving Biases
Babcock, L., & Loewenstein, G. (1997) · Journal of Economic Perspectives · doi:10.1257/jep.11.1.109 · Cited by 1,071 · see citing works
Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment
Pager, D., Bonikowski, B., & Western, B. (2009) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/000312240907400505 · Cited by 1,022 · see citing works
Does automation bias decision-making?
SKITKA, L. J., MOSIER, K. L., & BURDICK, M. (1999) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1006/ijhc.1999.0252 · Cited by 694 · see citing works
Wise interventions: Psychological remedies for social and personal problems.
Walton, G. M., & Wilson, T. D. (2018) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/rev0000115 · Cited by 617 · see citing works
When beliefs yield to evidence: Reducing biased evaluation by affirming the self
Cohen, G. L., Aronson, J., & Steele, C. M. (2000) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672002611011 · Cited by 584 · see citing works
Self-fulfilling prophecies: A theoretical and integrative review
Jussim, L. (1986) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.93.4.429 · Cited by 538 · see citing works
Reducing Racial Bias Among Health Care Providers: Lessons from Social-Cognitive Psychology
Burgess, D., van Ryn, M., Dovidio, J., & Saha, S. (2007) · Journal of General Internal Medicine · doi:10.1007/s11606-007-0160-1 · Cited by 495 · see citing works
Social perception and social reality: A reflection-construction model.
Jussim, L. (1991) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.98.1.54 · Cited by 446 · see citing works
The influence of sex roles on judgment
Meyers-Levy, J. (1988) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/209133 · Cited by 415 · see citing works
Deciding to discipline: Race, choice, and punishment at the frontlines of welfare reform.
Schram, S. F., Soss, J., Fording, R. C., & Houser, L. (2009) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/000312240907400304 · Cited by 399 · see citing works
Automation Bias: Decision Making and Performance in High-Tech Cockpits
Mosier, K. L., Skitka, L. J., Heers, S., & Burdick, M. (1998) · The International Journal of Aviation Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15327108ijap0801_3 · Cited by 353 · see citing works
Jost, J. T., Rudman, L. A., Blair, I. V., Carney, D. R., Dasgupta, N., Glaser, J., & Hardin, C. D. (2009) · Research in Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.riob.2009.10.001 · Cited by 353 · see citing works
Bias in grading: A meta-analysis of experimental research findings
Malouff, J. M., & Thorsteinsson, E. B. (2016) · Australian Journal of Education · doi:10.1177/0004944116664618 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Spencer, B., & Castano, E. (2007) · Social Justice Research · doi:10.1007/s11211-007-0047-7 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Dissent as Driving Cognition, Attitudes, and Judgments
Nemeth, C. J. (1995) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.1995.13.3.273 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
What Is the Function of Confirmation Bias?
Peters, U. (2022) · Erkenntnis · doi:10.1007/s10670-020-00252-1 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Political partisanship influences perception of biracial candidates' skin tone
Caruso, E. M., Mead, N. L., & Balcetis, E. (2009) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0905362106 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Clark, C. J., & Winegard, B. M. (2020) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2020.1721233 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Opinion Dynamics with Confirmation Bias
Allahverdyan, A. E., & Galstyan, A. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0099557 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Effects of sugar ingestion expectancies on mother-child interactions
Hoover, D. W., & Milich, R. (1994) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/bf02168088 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Confirmation Bias as a Social Skill
Dardenne, B., & Leyens, J.-P. (1995) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672952111011 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Biased and biasing: the hidden bias cascade and bias snowball effects
Dror, I. E. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs15040490 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Expectancies and memory: inferring the past from what must have been,”
Hirt, E. R., Lynn, S. J., Payne, D. G., Krackow, E., & McCrea, S. M. (2004) · How expectancies shape experience. · doi:10.1037/10332-004 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
(2017) · Lecture Notes in Computer Science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-72038-8 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
- Authors
- Darley, J. M., & Gross, P. H.
- Affiliations
- Princeton University (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1983-01
- Volume
- 44
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 20-33
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W2031398192
- Cited by
- 1,173
- References
- 3
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 22 · 2023: 51 · 2022: 42 · 2021: 38 · 2020: 96 · 2019: 73 · 2018: 50 · 2017: 26 · 2016: 32 · 2015: 39 · 2014: 39 · 2013: 40 · 2012: 42
- FWCI
- 45.89
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Categorization, perception, and language
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
- Keywords
- labeling effects, confirmation bias, social categorization, stereotypes, self-concept
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
