Cited by 821Social and Intergroup PsychologyRacial and Ethnic Identity ResearchNames, Identity, and Discrimination Research

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Evidence for racial prejudice at the implicit level and its relationship with questionnaire measures.

Wittenbrink, Bernd, Judd, Charles M., Park, Bernadette·1997·Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0022-3514.72.2.262

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Abstract

The content of spontaneously activated racial stereotypes among White Americans and the relation of this to more explicit measures of stereotyping and prejudice were investigated. Using a semantic priming paradigm, a prime was presented outside of conscious awareness (BLACK or WHITE), followed by a target stimulus requiring a word-nonword decision. The target stimuli included attributes that varied in valence and stereotypicality for Whites and African Americans. Results showed reliable stereotyping and prejudice effects: Black primes resulted in substantially stronger facilitation to negative than positive stereotypic attributes, whereas White primes facilitated positive more than negative stereotypic traits. The magnitude of this implicit prejudice effect correlated reliably with participants' scores on explicit racial attitude measures, indicating that people's spontaneous stereotypic associations are consistent with their more controlled responses.

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“)ere are different examples of such methods based on reaction time (RT), for instance, the implicit association test (IAT [149]), the extrinsic affective Simon task (EAST [150]), and the implicit relational assessment procedure (IRAP [151]) as well as various lexical decision tasks where primes and targets are sequent…”
Method
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What moderates implicit—explicit consistency?
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“Use of implicit attitude measures may address these limitations (Olson and Fazio, 2006; Wittenbrink, Judd, and Park, 1997).”
Background
Best research practices for using the Implicit Association Test
Greenwald, A. G., Brendl, M., Cai, H., Cvencek, D., Dovidio, J. F., Friese, M., Hahn, A., Hehman, E., Hofmann, W., Hughes, S., et al. (2022) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-021-01624-3 · Cited by 209
“…studies are sometimes intercepted on the path to publication by reviewers or editors who will note that the trait contrast was confounded with a valence contrast and the IAT might therefore have provided an attitude measure rather than the desired stereotype measure (cf. Wittenbrink et al., 1997).”
Background
Implicit Statistical Learning: A Tale of Two Literatures
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On the Relation between Associative Strength and Automatic Behavior
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“Hence, there is some evidence for variations in associative strength (but see Wittenbrink, Judd, & Park, 1997).”
Background
A Reconceptualization of How We Study Issues of Racial Prejudice
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Positive and extensive intergroup contact in the past buffers against the disproportionate impact of negative contact in the present
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Rowatt, W. C., Franklin, L. M., & Cotton, M. (2005) · Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion · doi:10.1111/j.1468-5906.2005.00263.x · Cited by 194
“Implicit attitudes can be inferred from reaction times to make implicit associations (see Greenwald, McGhee, and Schwartz 1998), from reaction times to categorize items after certain evaluative primes (see Wittenbrink, Judd, and Park 1997 ), from unobtrusive behavioral measures (see Crosby, Bromley, and Saxe 1980; Fra…”
Background
Understanding the Provider Contribution to Race/Ethnicity Disparities in Pain Treatment: Insights from Dual Process Models of Stereotyping
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“The latter tend to disguise their measurement interest (e.g., by presenting stimuli subliminally or saying the task is about word judgment; Dovidio et al., 1997; Fazio et al., 1995; Wittenbrink et al., 1997 ), whereas our participants had plenty of time to view the pictures and knew we were interested in their evaluat…”
BackgroundInfluential
Eliminating automatic racial bias: Making race non-diagnostic for responses to criminal suspects
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“faces as compared to White faces (Wittenbrink et al., 1997).”
Black Americans' Implicit Racial Associations And Their Implications for Intergroup Judgment
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“There are numerous techniques for measuring implicit associations in relation to race, from priming procedures (e.g., Fazio et al., 1995; Gaertner & McLaughlin, 1983; Payne, 2001; Perdue, Dovidio, Gurtman, & Tyler, 1990; Wittenbrink et al., 1997) to considering how word fragments are completed (Gilbert & Hixon, 1991)…”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Implicit Attitudes and Racism: Effects of Word Familiarity and Frequency on the Implicit Association Test
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Authors: Wittenbrink, B., Judd, C. M., & Park, B.
Affiliations: University of Colorado System (US)
ORCID: Wittenbrink, Bernd
Judd, Charles M.
Park, Bernadette
Venue: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1997-02
Volume: 72
Issue: 2
Pages: 262-274
ISSN: 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
1939-1315
DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.72.2.262
OpenAlex: W1978374884
Cited by: 821
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 2 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 28 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 30 · 2015: 29 · 2014: 32 · 2013: 28 · 2012: 47
FWCI: 92.95
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH-45049, R01MH045049)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Names, Identity, and Discrimination Research
Keywords: racial stereotypes, semantic priming, implicit attitudes, African Americans, White Americans
MeSH terms: Adult, Awareness, Black or African American, Female, Humans, Male, Prejudice, Race Relations, Stereotyping, Word Association Tests, White People

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Evidence for racial prejudice at the implicit level and its relationship with questionnaire measures.

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