Emotion regulation and memory: the cognitive costs of keeping one's cool
Abstract
An emerging literature has begun to document the affective consequences of emotion regulation. Little is known, however, about whether emotion regulation also has cognitive consequences. A process model of emotion suggests that expressive suppression should reduce memory for emotional events but that reappraisal should not. Three studies tested this hypothesis. Study 1 experimentally manipulated expressive suppression during film viewing, showing that suppression led to poorer memory for the details of the film. Study 2 manipulated expressive suppression and reappraisal during slide viewing. Only suppression led to poorer slide memory. Study 3 examined individual differences in typical expressive suppression and reappraisal and found that suppression was associated with poorer self-reported and objective memory but that reappraisal was not. Together, these studies suggest that the cognitive costs of keeping one's cool may vary according to how this is done.
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Cognitive reappraisal lowers stress responses and raises tolerance for emotional stimuli, with no harmful effects.
“For example, cognitive reappraisal strategies reduce the stress response and increase tolerance for emotional stimuli, without any detrimental effects (Gross, 1998; Richards & Gross, 2000).”
From How to handle anxiety: The effects of reappraisal, acceptance, and suppression strategies on anxious arousal (2009) · cites this paper as Richards & Gross, 2000
Response-focused strategies like suppression drain cognitive resources significantly more than antecedent-focused strategies.
“In contrast, expressive suppression can have negative effects (e.g., Richards and Gross, 2000), which supports the view that response focused strategies like suppression drain cognitive resources significantly more compared to antecedent focused strategies (Richards and Gross, 2000).”
From Physiological feelings (2019) · cites this paper as Richards and Gross, 2000
Expressive suppression can have negative effects.
“In contrast, expressive suppression can have negative effects (e.g., Richards and Gross, 2000), which supports the view that response focused strategies like suppression drain cognitive resources significantly more compared to antecedent focused strategies (Richards and Gross, 2000).”
From Physiological feelings (2019) · cites this paper as Richards and Gross, 2000
Suppression reduces memory of information conceived during suppression, implying that executive resources needed to prevent expression absorb cognitive ability to encode information.
“Richards and Gross (2000) show that suppression reduces the memory of information that is conceived during suppression, implying that executive resources that are necessary to prevent expression absorb cognitive ability to encode information.”
From Strong Enough to Suffer: Emotional Suppression, Stress Exposure, and Physiological Health Among Men Across the Life Course (2026) · cites this paper as Richards & Gross, 2000
Recognition performance of emotional stimuli seems unaffected by emotional reappraisal, whereas suppression leads to impaired recognition.
“In addition, the recognition performance of emotional stimuli seems to be unaffected by emotional reappraisal (see [9,28] but see [29]), whereas suppression leads to impaired recognition [8,9].”
From Effects of differential strategies of emotion regulation (2019) · cites this paper as [28]
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Self-citation
- Authors
- Richards, J. M., & Gross, J. J.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- ORCID
- Gross, James J.
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 2000-09
- Volume
- 79
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 410-424
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W4241540074
- Cited by
- 1,472
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 45 · 2025: 51 · 2024: 50 · 2023: 51 · 2022: 72 · 2021: 67 · 2020: 114 · 2019: 77 · 2018: 78 · 2017: 68 · 2016: 63 · 2015: 86 · 2014: 92 · 2013: 91 · 2012: 95
- FWCI
- 6.62
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH 58147)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Keywords
- emotion regulation, memory, cognitive cost, emotional control
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Attention, Cognition, Emotions, Female, Humans, Male, Mental Recall, Repression, Psychology
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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