When are adaptive strategies most predictive of psychopathology?
Abstract
In recent work, we showed that putatively adaptive emotion regulation strategies, such as reappraisal and acceptance, have a weaker association with psychopathology than putatively maladaptive strategies, such as rumination, suppression, and avoidance (e.g., Aldao & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2010; Aldao, Nolen-Hoeksema, & Schweizer, 2010). In this investigation, we examined the interaction between adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies in the prediction of psychopathology symptoms (depression, anxiety, and alcohol problems) concurrently and prospectively. We assessed trait emotion regulation and psychopathology symptoms in a sample of community residents at Time 1 (N = 1,317) and then reassessed psychopathology at Time 2 (N = 1,132). Cross-sectionally, we found that the relationship between adaptive strategies and psychopathology symptoms was moderated by levels of maladaptive strategies: adaptive strategies had a negative association with psychopathology symptoms only at high levels of maladaptive strategies. In contrast, adaptive strategies showed no prospective relationship to psychopathology symptoms either alone or in interaction with maladaptive strategies. We discuss the implications of this investigation for future work on the contextual factors surrounding the deployment of emotion regulation strategies.
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In a nonclinical community sample, greater use of maladaptive strategies was related to more severe psychopathology concurrently and predicted higher psychopathology symptom severity one year later, even after controlling for initial symptom severity.
“In a nonclinical community sample, Aldao and Nolen-Hoeksema (2012) noted that greater use of maladaptive strategies was related to more severe psychopathology concurrently and predicted higher psychopathology symptom severity one year later, even after controlling for initial symptom severity.”
From Relationships among adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies and psychopathology during the treatment of comorbid anxiety and alcohol use disorders (2015) · cites this paper as Aldao and Nolen-Hoeksema (2012)
In that nonclinical sample, adaptive strategy use had no direct associations with psychopathology symptoms concurrently or prospectively.
“there were no direct associations between the use of adaptive strategies and psychopathology symptoms concurrently or prospectively.”
From Relationships among adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies and psychopathology during the treatment of comorbid anxiety and alcohol use disorders (2015) · cites this paper as Aldao and Nolen-Hoeksema (2012)
More frequent use of adaptive strategies confers a benefit only in individuals who report greater use of maladaptive strategies.
“Their results suggest that more frequent use of adaptive strategies confer a benefit only in individuals who report greater use of maladaptive strategies.”
From Relationships among adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies and psychopathology during the treatment of comorbid anxiety and alcohol use disorders (2015) · cites this paper as Aldao and Nolen-Hoeksema (2012)
In that nonclinical sample, the relationship between adaptive strategy use and psychopathology symptoms was moderated by maladaptive strategy use.
“the relationship between the use of adaptive strategies and psychopathology symptoms was moderated by the use of maladaptive strategies.”
From Relationships among adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies and psychopathology during the treatment of comorbid anxiety and alcohol use disorders (2015) · cites this paper as Aldao and Nolen-Hoeksema (2012)
A trend-level interaction suggested that adaptive strategy use was associated with lower symptom severity only among individuals with higher maladaptive coping, but this finding was less robust than the similar finding by Aldao and Nolen-Hoeksema.
“While we identified a trend-level interaction suggesting that adaptive strategy use was associated with lower symptom severity only for individuals engaging in a higher degree of maladaptive coping, our finding was less robust in magnitude than Aldao and Nolen-Hoeksema's similar finding.”
From Relationships among adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies and psychopathology during the treatment of comorbid anxiety and alcohol use disorders (2015) · cites this paper as Aldao and Nolen-Hoeksema (2012)
The pattern of interactions when patients were less symptomatic resembles the pattern found by Aldao and Nolen-Hoeksema (2012) in a relatively healthy community sample.
“Interestingly, this second pattern of interactions (i.e., when patients were less symptomatic) is akin to the one found by Aldao and Nolen-Hoeksema (2012) in a community sample of relatively healthy participants.”
From Adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies: Interactive effects during CBT for social anxiety disorder (2014) · cites this paper as Aldao and Nolen-Hoeksema (2012)
The asymmetry was qualified by an interaction between adaptive engagement and maladaptive avoidance strategy use.
“Second, this asymmetry was qualified by an interaction between the use of adaptive engagement and maladaptive avoidance strategies (Aldao & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2012).”
From Adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies: Interactive effects during CBT for social anxiety disorder (2014) · cites this paper as Aldao & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2012
The interaction between adaptive engagement and maladaptive avoidance found in an unselected community sample may also describe affective functioning in adults diagnosed with social anxiety disorder.
“First, it suggests that the interaction between adaptive engagement and maladaptive avoidance strategies found in an unselected community sample (i.e., adaptive engagement strategies had a negative association with symptoms only when participants endorsed high levels of maladaptive avoidance strategies; Aldao & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2012) might also describe patterns of affective functioning in adults”
From Adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies: Interactive effects during CBT for social anxiety disorder (2014) · cites this paper as Aldao & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2012
When participants reported high maladaptive strategy use, adaptive strategies had the expected negative association with the symptom composite; when maladaptive use was low, the adaptive-strategy association was non-significant.
“Specifically, for participants who reported using high levels of putatively maladaptive strategies, the use of putatively adaptive strategies had the expected negative association with the composite score of symptoms. However, for participants who reported using low levels of putatively maladaptive strategies, the association between putatively adaptive strategies and psychopathology was non-sign”
From Adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies: Interactive effects during CBT for social anxiety disorder (2014) · cites this paper as Aldao and Nolen-Hoeksema (2012)
In a large community sample, habitual putatively adaptive strategies (acceptance, positive reframing) interacted with habitual putatively maladaptive strategies (behavioral disengagement, denial) in predicting a composite of anxiety, depression, and alcohol abuse symptoms.
“Aldao and Nolen-Hoeksema (2012) examined the relationship between emotion regulation strategies and mental health in a large community sample and found that the habitual use of putatively adaptive strategies (acceptance, positive reframing) interacted with the habitual use of putatively maladaptive strategies (behavioral disengagement, denial) in the prediction of a composite scores of symptoms of”
From Adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies: Interactive effects during CBT for social anxiety disorder (2014) · cites this paper as Aldao and Nolen-Hoeksema (2012)
Impaired awareness, understanding and acceptance of emotions or few appropriate emotion regulation strategies are related to interpersonal problems.
“An impaired awareness, understanding and acceptance of emotions or few appropriate emotion regulation strategies [19] are related to interpersonal problems [20, 21].”
Emotional dysregulation leads to the development, maintenance, and worsening of many psychological disorders.
“Conversely, emotional dysregulation, through the use of maladaptive strategies, leads to the development, maintenance, and worsening of many psychological disorders (Aldao et al., 2010; Aldao & Dixon-Gordon, 2014; Aldao & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2012; Berking & Wupperman, 2012; Carpenter & Trull, 2013; Finlay-Jones et al., 2015; Gross & Muñoz, 1995; Kring & Sloan, 2010; Lavender et al., 2015; Mennin et al”
From Acceptance Is a Better Predictor of Anxiety, Depressive Symptoms, and Well-Being Compared to Other Emotional Competences. (2025) · cites this paper as Aldao & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2012
The ability to adopt a wide repertoire of strategies with high variability across different situations, i.e., emotion regulation flexibility, plays a key role for mental well-being.
“Beyond psychopathology, the ability to adopt a wide repertoire of strategies with high variability across different situations (i.e., ER flexibility) (Aldao et al., 2015) has been shown to play a key role for mental well-being (Aldao and Nolen-Hoeksema, 2012; Bonanno and Burton, 2013).”
From New Technologies for the Understanding, Assessment, and Intervention of Emotion Regulation (2019) · cites this paper as Aldao and Nolen-Hoeksema, 2012
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“Second, and more importantly, Aldao and Nolen-Hoeksema (2012) examined the relationship between emotion regulation strategies and mental health in a large community sample and found that the habitual use of putatively adaptive strategies (acceptance, positive reframing) interacted with the habitual…”
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“In line with Aldao and Nolen-Hoeksema (2012), we found that pre-treatment psychopathology was positively correlated with concurrent maladaptive strategy use, r ¼ .51, p .0001, but was not significantly correlated with concurrent adaptive strategy use, r ¼ .15, p ¼ .17.”
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Yapan, S., Türkçapar, M. H., & Boysan, M. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-020-01086-4 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
The role of emotion regulation on co-occurring psychopathology in emerging adults with ASD
Charlton, A. S., Smith, I. C., Mazefsky, C. A., & White, S. W. (2020) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-019-03983-5 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Aldao, A., & Christensen, K. (2015) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2015.962399 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Self-citationNaragon-Gainey, K., McMahon, T. P., & Park, J. (2018) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/amp0000371 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“…(negatively) related to symptoms among those who also use maladaptive strategies, suggesting that adaptive strategy use can help reduce the negative consequences of maladaptive strategies (Aldao, Jazaieri, Goldin, & Gross, 2014; Aldao & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2012; McMahon & Naragon-Gainey, 2018).”
BackgroundMethodYaroslavsky, I., Rottenberg, J., Bylsma, L. M., Jennings, J. R., George, C., Baji, I., Benák, I., Dochnal, R., Halas, K., Kapornai, K., et al. (2016) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000149 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Emotion Regulation and Academic Burnout Among Youth: a Quantitative Meta-analysis
Iuga, I. A., & David, O. A. (2024) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-024-09930-w · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Daros, A. R., Guevara, M. A., Uliaszek, A. A., McMain, S. F., & Ruocco, A. C. (2018) · Psychopathology · doi:10.1159/000487008 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Moritz, S., Lüdtke, T., Westermann, S., Hermeneit, J., Watroba, J., & Lincoln, T. M. (2016) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2016.04.025 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
(2020) · International review of neurobiology · doi:10.1016/bs.irn.2020.03.012 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Emotion dysregulation as a cross-cutting target for inpatient psychiatric intervention
Fowler, J. C., Clapp, J. D., Madan, A., Allen, J. G., Oldham, J. M., & Frueh, B. C. (2016) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2016.07.043 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Daniel, K. E., Baee, S., Boukhechba, M., Barnes, L. E., & Teachman, B. A. (2019) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22970 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Do depressive symptoms predict paranoia or vice versa?
Moritz, S., Göritz, A. S., McLean, B., Westermann, S., & Brodbeck, J. (2017) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2016.10.002 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Lee, M., Lee, E.-S., Jun, J. Y., & Park, S. (2020) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2019.112707 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Verschueren, M., Claes, L., Palmeroni, N., Raemen, L., Buelens, T., Moons, P., & Luyckx, K. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.667235 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Scafuto, F., Quinto, R. M., Ghiroldi, S., Montecucco, N. F., Presaghi, F., Iani, L., & De Vincenzo, F. (2024) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-024-06081-7 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Profiles of Emotion Regulation in Young People Accessing Youth Mental Health and Drug Treatment
Sloan, E., Hall, K., Youssef, G. J., Moulding, R., Mildred, H., & Staiger, P. K. (2019) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-019-10003-4 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Emotion regulation strategies and perceived stress during pregnancy in expectant mothers and fathers
Penner, F., Bunderson, M., Bartz, C., Brooker, R. J., & Rutherford, H. J. (2024) · Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology · doi:10.1080/02646838.2022.2110224 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Munsch, S., Forrer, F., Naas, A., Mueller, V., Rubo, M., Hannoun, F., & Mugellini, E. (2021) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-021-00690-8 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“An impaired awareness, understanding and acceptance of emotions or few appropriate emotion regulation strategies [19] are related to interpersonal problems [20, 21].”
BackgroundMessina, I., Spataro, P., Grecucci, A., Marogna, C., & Dixon-Gordon, K. L. (2022) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-022-09992-6 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Zsigo, C., Sfärlea, A., Lingl, C., Piechaczek, C., Schulte-Körne, G., Feldmann, L., & Greimel, E. (2023) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-022-01353-4 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Ribeyron, J., Shankland, R., Leys, C., & Duriez, N. (2025) · Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement · doi:10.1037/cbs0000430 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Faustino, B., Vasco, A. B., Farinha‐Fernandes, A., Delgado, J., Guerreiro, J. C., & Matos, M. (2022) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2736 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
- Authors
- Aldao, A., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S.
- Affiliations
- Yale University (US)
- ORCID
- Aldao, Amelia
- Venue
- Journal of Abnormal Psychology
- Published
- 2012-02
- Volume
- 121
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 276-281
- ISSN
- 0021-843X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1846
- OpenAlex
- W2169892062
- Cited by
- 505
- References
- 44
- Citations by year
- 2026: 29 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 38 · 2023: 32 · 2022: 36 · 2021: 46 · 2020: 54 · 2019: 39 · 2018: 41 · 2017: 30 · 2016: 35 · 2015: 39 · 2014: 25 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 8
- FWCI
- 23.91
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Abnormal Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
- Keywords
- emotion regulation strategies, adaptive emotion regulation, maladaptive emotion regulation, psychopathology, depression, anxiety, alcohol problems, rumination, suppression, avoidance, acceptance, cognitive reappraisal, moderation, prospective prediction
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Anxiety Disorders, California, Cross-Sectional Studies, Depressive Disorder, Emotions, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Prospective Studies, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Regression Analysis, Alcohol-Related Disorders, Young Adult
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