The DOI matches its Crossref record; 15 of the 15 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Gender differences in temperament: A meta-analysis.
Abstract
The authors used meta-analytical techniques to estimate the magnitude of gender differences in mean level and variability of 35 dimensions and 3 factors of temperament in children ages 3 months to 13 years. Effortful control showed a large difference favoring girls and the dimensions within that factor (e.g., inhibitory control: d = -.41, perceptual sensitivity: d = -0.38) showed moderate gender differences favoring girls, consistent with boys' greater incidence of externalizing disorders. Surgency showed a difference favoring boys, as did some of the dimensions within that factor (e.g., activity: d = 0.33, high-intensity pleasure: d = 0.30), consistent with boys' greater involvement in active rough-and-tumble play. Negative affectivity showed negligible gender differences.
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In the citing paper
“Given no gender difference in negative affectivity in infancy and childhood (Else-Quest et al., 2006), for temperament to account for the emergence of the gender difference in depression in adolescence requires an interaction between vulnerable temperament and some other factor, such as stress, with stress increasing dramatically in adolescence and increasing more for females than males.”
From Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms (2017) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“Findings suggest a small influence of gender, whereby men procrastinate slightly more than women do, revealing a weak negative correlation between the female gender and procrastination (r = -.08),possibly related to greater selfcontrol among women in general (van Eerde, 2003;Else-Quest, Hyde, Goldsmith, & van Hulle, 2006).”
From Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure (2014) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“females scored higher on agreeableness (SMD = 0.56)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“forgiveness (SMD = 0.28)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“neuroticism (SMD = 0.41)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“altruism (SMD = 0.11)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“morningness (SMD = 0.08)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“effortful control (SMD = 0.12)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“extraversion (SMD = 0.15)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“Males, on the other hand, were higher on negative reciprocity (SMD = 0.13)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“positive reciprocity (SMD = 0.06)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“sociotropy (SMD = 0.34”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“risk-taking (SMDs = 0.17–SMD = 0.36)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“general impulsivity (SMD = 0.09”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“patience (SMD = 0.05)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“Negative affectivity was the only univariate personality dimension that showed no sex differences (Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“trust (SMD = 0.06)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“narcissism (SMD = 0.27)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“The authors concluded that girls have a stronger ability than boys to regulate their attention and inhibit their impulses -skills that certainly serve girls well in the classroom (Blair and Razza, 2007).”
From Gender and Education (2015) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“A recent meta-analysis of temperament in childhood and preadolescence reported a large difference between boys ' and girls ' effortful control (Cohen ' s d ¼ 1.01; Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
From Gender and Education (2015) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“It should be noted, however, that boys and girls do not differ substantially in their ability to resist temptation or susceptibility to distraction (Else-Quest et al., 2006; Silverman, 2003).”
From Gender and Education (2015) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
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Kessler, R. (1993) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/0165-0327(93)90026-g · Cited by 2,207
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Clark, L. A., Watson, D., & Mineka, S. (1994) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.103.1.103 · Cited by 1,685
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“Epidemiological studies consistently show that adolescent girls report higher levels of internalizing symptoms, emotional distress, psychosomatic complaints, perceived loneliness, and stress-related difficulties compared to boys [25,26].”
Sethi, T., Moore, A. M., Smith, L. M., Serwatka, C., & Kong, K. L. (2026) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2026.108695
Huang, K., Wang, C., Wang, D., Liu, X., & Guo, C. (2026) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/01650254261451148
Reis, H. L., Lunkes, S., Gama, M. D. C., Coltro, B. P., Paraventi, L., de Souza, C. D., & Vieira, M. L. (2026) · Revista Portuguesa de Investigação Comportamental e Social · doi:10.31211/rpics.2026.12.1.386
“…prior meta-analytic and review evidence indicating that sex differences in child temperament are often small, domain-specific, and partly shaped by developmental and contextual factors rather than reflecting broad trait-level distinctions (Cosentino-Rocha & Linhares, 2013; Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
Likhanov, M. V., Fillon, A. A., Demolliens, M., ROBERT, A., Darnon, C., Huguet, P., & Régner, I. (2026) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs16050706 · Cited by 2
“In addition, research has consistently shown that girls report higher levels of anxiety compared to boys (Else-Quest et al., 2006; Esbjørn et al., 2013; Ferguson et al., 2015; Gibeau et al., 2023; Madjar et al., 2018; Zahn-Waxler et al., 2008).”
Representational mind-mindedness in Danish early childcare professionals: the role of child gender
Wendelboe, K. I., Gram, S. W., Stuart, A. C., Frees, A., Mohr, J. E. W., Væver, M. S., Egmose, I., & Smith‐Nielsen, J. (2026) · European Early Childhood Education Research Journal · doi:10.1080/1350293x.2026.2646980
Shabbir, S., Hameed, A., Ahmed, J., Longa, F. E. A., & Ali, A. (2026) · Research Journal of Psychology · doi:10.59075/rjs.v4i1.392
“Else-Quest et al. (2006) further demonstrated that there are gender differences in temperament and emotional expression that are complex and shaped by development, socialization and context.”
Káros-e a kora gyermekkori képernyő-expozíció a mentális egészségre?
Lábadi, B., & Kopcsó, K. (2026) · Orvosi Hetilap · doi:10.1556/650.2026.33508
Beyond Old Boys' Clubs: Financial Analysts' Utilization of Professional Connections
Du, M.-Q., & Zhang, R. (2026) · Journal of Accounting Research · doi:10.1111/1475-679x.70044
Selbstwert und seine Surrogate
Arnold, T. B., & Fuchs, T. (2026) · PSYCHE · doi:10.21706/ps-80-3-177
Mendoza, E. M. F., Olabarrieta‐Landa, L., Rodríguez‐Lorenzana, A., Mascialino, G., Vergara‐Moragues, E., Reyes-Aragón, C. J. D. L., Albaladejo-Blázquez, N., Ruíz, N. C., Escher, M. J. I., Arango‐Lasprilla, J. C., et al. (2026) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0341237
“The most pronounced differences, observed in Spain and Ecuador, could be influenced by cultural factors, such as gender expectations and/or parenting styles that favor the development of verbal skills in girls [72].”
Lebrat, M., Carrouel, F., de Vigneulles, B. D. S., Lamure, M. P., Salque, C., Salamon, R., Massoubre, C., Nicolas Franck, B., & Dussart, C. (2026) · JMIR Public Health and Surveillance · doi:10.2196/93207
“Women scored higher across all dimensions, in line with studies showing greater mental health literacy and empathy among women respondents [36,37].”
Longobardi, E., Spataro, P., Morelli, M., Brunetti, M., & Cerutti, R. (2026) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221325.2026.2618674
Bowdrie, K., Holt, R. F., & Kronenberger, W. G. (2026) · Journal of Child Language · doi:10.1017/s0305000925100469 · Cited by 1
“There were not significant differences in effortful control ratings between the boys and girls, t (57) = .721, p = .474, which differs from results on typically hearing children, which tend to reveal sex differences (Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
Plasma proteome demonstrates sex-specific associations with mental health risks in adolescents
Afonin, A. М., Piironen, A., Júlvez, J., KAMP, I. V., & Kanninen, K. M. (2026) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2026.116980 · Cited by 1
Paquette, D., de Medeiros, J. M., Couture, S., Bigras, M., & Lemelin, J. (2025) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/13591053251392034
“The meta-analysis by Else-Quest et al. (2006) showed significant sex differences in temperament in young children, namely a higher average effect size in boys for the “sur-gency” factor (activity level, impulsivity, and pleasure associated with high-intensity stimuli), and a higher effect size in…”
Zhao, C., Xu, X., Guan, T., Li, D., & Fu, R. (2025) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409289.2025.2594505 · Cited by 1
“…temperament, gender differences have also been observed, such as girls typically demonstrating higher levels of inhibitory control and sociability than boys (Carlson & Moses, 2001; Else-Quest et al., 2006; Kochanska et al., 2000), which may contribute to their more advanced verbal expression.”
InfluentialJohansen, H. K., Lehmann, S., Søvig, K. H., & Bjørknes, R. (2025) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2025.108534
Xiu, M., YANG, K. Y., Wen, L., & Qu, M. (2025) · Archives of Women s Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s00737-025-01620-y
“As a result, girls are more likely than boys to internalize problems such as anxiety and depression (Else-Quest et al. 2006).”
Orr, E., & Kashy‐Rosenbaum, G. (2025) · Early Child Development and Care · doi:10.1080/03004430.2025.2546995
“This finding aligns with the results of Else-Quest et al. (2006), a meta-analysis that examined the magnitude of gender differences in the mean levels and variability of 35 temperament dimensions and three factors in children aged 3 months to 13 years.”
Franssens, R., Gouwy, M., Vergauwe, J., & Clercq, B. J. D. (2025) · Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation · doi:10.1186/s40479-025-00301-7
“Although peers form a relevant social context during childhood and adolescence in this regard, established literature shows that parental ratings are the most consistent and reliable source of informant ratings on youth personality [24, 29, 65].”
Comparison in Socioemotional Development in Chilean and the U.S. Children
Espinosa-Díaz, N., Farkas, C., Vallotton, C. D., & Rojas-Jara, C. (2025) · Revista Colombiana de Psicología · doi:10.15446/rcp.v34n2.106721
“Another possible explanation is that the children in this study were still too young for differences to emerge in response to increased exposure to socialization and culture (Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
Pla-Pla, P., Burgués, P. L., & de Ocáriz, U. S. (2025) · Retos · doi:10.47197/retos.v70.115138 · Cited by 2
“Additionally, research suggests that biological sex may influence socio-affective well-being, as hormonal and neurobiological differences contribute to variations in emotional regulation, stress responses, and conflict management strategies (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Else-Quest et al.,2006).”
Effect of Gender in Development of Attention in Malayalam Speaking children
Joby, J., Priyadarshi, B., & P., A. B. (2025) · Indian Journal of Language and Linguistics · doi:10.54392/ijll2524
“Often boys are found to have shorter attention spans compared to girls, who typically excel in tasks requiring sustained attention (Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
Çelik, S. B., Bacanak, E. B., & Bumın, G. (2025) · İnönü Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi · doi:10.17679/inuefd.1525227
Parents’ implicit theories of intelligence and children’s responses to academic challenge
Brown, E. D., & Kriebel, D. K. (2025) · Early Child Development and Care · doi:10.1080/03004430.2025.2486327
Theory of Mind and Psychopathology: The Differential Impact of Temperament Group Membership
Peisch, V. D., Xie, W., Nelson, C. A., & Enlow, M. B. (2025) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-024-02998-6 · Cited by 1
“Given that prior work has explored sex differences in child temperament (Else-Quest et al., 2006), theory of mind understanding (Walker, 2005), and psychological symptoms (Sterba et al., 2007), we explored the impact of sex in our preliminary analyses.”
Hofstee, M., Fukkink, R. G., Endendijk, J. J., Huijding, J., van der Velde, B., & Deković, M. (2024) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/01650254241287222
“For instance, boys tend to lag behind girls in their early neurocognitive development, as is evident in less mature patterns of brain activity (Cuevas et al., 2016) and lower self-regulatory abilities compared with girls (for meta-analyses, see Else-Quest et al., 2006; Silverman, 2021).”
Peets, K., & Vecchio, T. D. (2024) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.22132
Trait continuity: Can parent‐rated infant temperament predict HEXACO personality in early adulthood?
Kamarova, S., Dunlop, P. D., & Parker, S. K. (2023) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/sjop.12898 · Cited by 1
Merianos, A. L., Nabors, L., Stough, C. C. O., Olaniyan, A. C., Smith, M. L., & Mahabee‐Gittens, E. M. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2023.02.089 · Cited by 1
Sex differences in growth in body mass and psychosocial abilities in children in Head Start
Miccoli, A., Toussaint, L. L., Smith, L. M., Hansen, C. K., & Lynch, B. A. (2022) · Early Child Development and Care · doi:10.1080/03004430.2022.2044322
Teachers’ Nonverbal Behaviors Influence Children’s Gender Stereotypes
Xu, J., Chen, Y., & Zhang, Y. (2022) · International Conference on Education, Knowledge and Information Management (ICEKIM) · doi:10.1109/icekim55072.2022.00216
POJEDINI ASPEKTI USLUGA RANE INTERVENCIJE PRI RAZVOJNOM SAVETOVALIŠTU
Kovacic, Z., & Cvijetic, M. (2021) · Multidisciplinarni Pristupi u Edukaciji i Rehabilitaciji · doi:10.59519/mper3018
“Po-red sredinskih, na polne razlike utiče i niz kompleksih bioloških i genetskih činilaca (Else-Quest et al., 2006; Erickson & Schulkin, 2003).”
BackgroundDevelopmental Factors That Predict Head Movement During Resting-State fMRI in Preschool-Age ChildrenPreprint
Johnson, C. A., Garnett, E. O., Chow, H. M., Spray, G. J., Zhu, D. C., & Chang, S. (2021) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-704477/v1
Ocenjevanje temperamenta v zgodnjem mladostništvu: Psihometrične značilnosti vprašalnika EATQ-R-SF
Kranjec, E., Zupančič, M., & Sočan, G. (2021) · Revija za Elementarno Izobraževanje · doi:10.18690/rei.14.2.193-216.2021
A Comparison Differences in Students’ Perceptions Toward Using Teacher’s Feedback
Syahputra, A. (2021) · JPI (Jurnal Pendidikan Indonesia) · doi:10.23887/jpi-undiksha.v10i1.28514
MODELS, DETERMINANTS AND TESTING OF CHILD TEMPERAMENT
Isić-Imamović, A. (2020) · Zbornik radova Islamskog pedagoškog fakulteta u Zenici (Online) · doi:10.51728/26371480.2020.18.167
Hannover, B., & Wolter, I. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-24734-8_38-1 · Cited by 7
Temperamento en niños de 3 a 7 años con y sin tratamiento psicológico
Castro, L., & Mustaca, A. (2020) · doi:10.32654/concienciaepg.2-1.5
Survival, Selection, and Sex Differences in Fear
Campbell, A. C. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108131797.027 · Cited by 19
Personality, Gender, and Culture
Watkins, C. D. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-16999-6_3392-1
Gender Differences in the Development of Other-Regarding Preferences
John, K., & Thomsen, S. (2017) · Social Science Research Network · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3045741
“Third, since gender differences in personality are already present at the youngest age studied (see Else-Quest et al., 2006), these could in principle lead to the observed gender differences in other-regarding preferences.”
BackgroundBacterial and Fungal Microbial Biomarkers in House Dust
Duty, S., Ackerman, R., Calafat, A., & Hauser, R. (2016) · doi:10.1201/b14596-10
Stoute jongens, lieve meisjes?
Endendijk, J. J. (2015) · Kind en adolescent · doi:10.1007/s12453-015-0092-1
Reactions to provocation and feelings about aggression in an Indian sample
Thanzami, V., & Archer, J. (2013) · doi:10.4119/unibi/ijcv.289
“Girls show greater effortful control than boys from early in life (Else-Quest et al. 2006).”
BackgroundThe Relationship Between ADHD and Crime and Its Judicial Enlightenments
Song, P., & Yang, B. (2013) · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1042.2012.01822
Developmental Milestones: Early and Middle Childhood
Wilmshurst, L. (2012) · doi:10.1002/9781118440728.ch3
조인철, Kim, M., & Han, Y. (2010) · The Korean Journal of Woman Psychology · doi:10.18205/kpa.2010.15.4.013
Differences or Similarities in Mathematics? Finding an Integrating Focus
Linn, M., & Kessel, C. (2007) · doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00375_2.x
Trait variability as a partial explanation of gender gaps
Andersen, C. (2024) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2024.112908 · Cited by 1
Investigating the Relationship Between Dental Anxiety and Children's Temperament in Children
Krikken, J., ten Cate, J. M., & Veerkamp, J. (2024) · Annals Journal of Dental and Medical Assisting · doi:10.51847/bsjmdkpjca
Athuman, J. J. (2023) · International Journal of Education and Social Science Research · doi:10.37500/ijessr.2023.6410
“Further research is needed to explore the underlying factors contributing to these gender differences and to understand their implications for educational practices and interventions (Else-Quest et al., 2006; Zahn-Waxler et al., 2008).”
BackgroundSex Differences in Personality Traits
Booth, T., & Murray, A. L. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_1265-1 · Cited by 13
Worthy, L., Lavigne, T., & Romero, F. (2020) · doi:10.4324/9780203097991-15
Exceptionally Well-Adjusted High Achievers
Martin, R. P., Lease, A. M., & Slobodskaya, H. (2020) · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-62208-4_4
Croney, S. L. (2020) · doi:10.30707/etd2020.1604319230037
“5 demonstrating more inhibitory control than boys (Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
BackgroundELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILDREN’S UNDERSTANDING OF DISPROPORTIONATE DISCIPLINE
Biefeld, S. D. (2020) · UKnowledge (University of Kentucky) · doi:10.13023/etd.2020.500
Gartstein, M. A., Mattera, J., & Campagna, A. X. (2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.23667-5 · Cited by 3
Protecting Bullies and Victims from Long-term Undesirable Outcomes
Zych, I., Farrington, D. P., Llorent, V. J., & Ttofi, M. M. (2017) · SpringerBriefs in psychology · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-53028-4_6 · Cited by 1
APA Handbook of Nonverbal Communication
LaFrance, M., & Vial, A. C. (2015) · doi:10.5860/choice.195950
The Distribution of Gender Differences in the Temperament and Social Competence of Preschoolers
Schussler, L. (2014) · doi:10.13016/m2r61x
“In their thorough analysis of gender differences in temperament, Else-Quest et al. (2006) found that measures completed by parents are less likely to yield gender differences and offer the explanation that teachers are more likely to witness children interacting in peer groups with the same gender,…”
BackgroundInfluentialAndrews, D. A., & Bonta, J. (2010) · doi:10.1016/b978-1-4224-6329-1.50002-6
“Temperament refers to inherent and stable characteristic tendencies of responding to our environment (Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Else-Quest, N. M., Hyde, J. S., Goldsmith, H. H., & Van Hulle, C. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2006-01
- Volume
- 132
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 33-72
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W1979582482
- Cited by
- 1,169
- References
- 266
- Citations by year
- 2026: 50 · 2025: 41 · 2024: 51 · 2023: 37 · 2022: 61 · 2021: 68 · 2020: 74 · 2019: 73 · 2018: 67 · 2017: 75 · 2016: 74 · 2015: 77 · 2014: 64 · 2013: 81 · 2012: 61
- FWCI
- 5.25
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Keywords
- gender differences, temperament, effortful control, inhibitory control, perceptual sensitivity, surgency, negative affectivity, children, externalizing disorders, rough-and-tumble play, emotional reactivity
- MeSH terms
- Female, Humans, Male, Personality, Personality Development, Psychological Theory, Sex Factors, Temperament
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