The DOI matches its Crossref record; 15 of the 15 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Gender differences in temperament: A meta-analysis.
Abstract
The authors used meta-analytical techniques to estimate the magnitude of gender differences in mean level and variability of 35 dimensions and 3 factors of temperament in children ages 3 months to 13 years. Effortful control showed a large difference favoring girls and the dimensions within that factor (e.g., inhibitory control: d = -.41, perceptual sensitivity: d = -0.38) showed moderate gender differences favoring girls, consistent with boys' greater incidence of externalizing disorders. Surgency showed a difference favoring boys, as did some of the dimensions within that factor (e.g., activity: d = 0.33, high-intensity pleasure: d = 0.30), consistent with boys' greater involvement in active rough-and-tumble play. Negative affectivity showed negligible gender differences.
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In the citing paper
“Given no gender difference in negative affectivity in infancy and childhood (Else-Quest et al., 2006), for temperament to account for the emergence of the gender difference in depression in adolescence requires an interaction between vulnerable temperament and some other factor, such as stress, with stress increasing dramatically in adolescence and increasing more for females than males.”
From Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms (2017) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“Findings suggest a small influence of gender, whereby men procrastinate slightly more than women do, revealing a weak negative correlation between the female gender and procrastination (r = -.08),possibly related to greater selfcontrol among women in general (van Eerde, 2003;Else-Quest, Hyde, Goldsmith, & van Hulle, 2006).”
From Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure (2014) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“females scored higher on agreeableness (SMD = 0.56)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“forgiveness (SMD = 0.28)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“neuroticism (SMD = 0.41)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“altruism (SMD = 0.11)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“morningness (SMD = 0.08)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“effortful control (SMD = 0.12)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“extraversion (SMD = 0.15)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“Males, on the other hand, were higher on negative reciprocity (SMD = 0.13)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“positive reciprocity (SMD = 0.06)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“sociotropy (SMD = 0.34”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“risk-taking (SMDs = 0.17–SMD = 0.36)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“general impulsivity (SMD = 0.09”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“patience (SMD = 0.05)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“Negative affectivity was the only univariate personality dimension that showed no sex differences (Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“trust (SMD = 0.06)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“narcissism (SMD = 0.27)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“The authors concluded that girls have a stronger ability than boys to regulate their attention and inhibit their impulses -skills that certainly serve girls well in the classroom (Blair and Razza, 2007).”
From Gender and Education (2015) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“A recent meta-analysis of temperament in childhood and preadolescence reported a large difference between boys ' and girls ' effortful control (Cohen ' s d ¼ 1.01; Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
From Gender and Education (2015) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“It should be noted, however, that boys and girls do not differ substantially in their ability to resist temptation or susceptibility to distraction (Else-Quest et al., 2006; Silverman, 2003).”
From Gender and Education (2015) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
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“Else-Quest et al. (2006) also examined positive mood, as assessed by questionnaires.”
BackgroundEmotion Regulation and Psychopathology: The Role of Gender
Nolen–Hoeksema, S. (2012) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032511-143109 · Cited by 1,413
“Several theorists have suggested that the greater rates of low effortful control in boys versus girls may account for the greater rates of aggression and antisociality seen in boys than girls (see Baron-Cohen 2002; Else-Quest et al. 2006; Mullin & Hinshaw 2007; Zahn-Waxler et al. 2006, 2008).”
BackgroundHulleman, C. S., Schrager, S. M., Bodmann, S. M., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2010) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0018947 · Cited by 1,308
Field, A. P., & Gillett, R. (2010) · British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology · doi:10.1348/000711010x502733 · Cited by 1,162
“On the former point, many writers have argued that real-world data in the social sciences are likely to have variable population parameters (Field, 2003b; Hunter & Schmidt, 2000, 2004; National Research Council, 1992; Osburn & Callender, 1992). There are data to support these claims: Field (2005b) calculated the stand…”
BackgroundHyde, J. S., Mezulis, A. H., & Abramson, L. Y. (2008) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.115.2.291 · Cited by 1,146
Self-citationDisorders of Childhood and Adolescence: Gender and Psychopathology
Zahn-Waxler, C., Shirtcliff, E. A., & Marceau, K. (2008) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091358 · Cited by 1,072
“Girls show more fearfulness and anxiety than boys show as early as their preschool years (Carter et al. 2003; see review by Else-Quest et al. 2006 ).”
BackgroundComorbidity of anxiety and depression in children and adolescents: 20 years after
Cummings, C. M., Caporino, N. E., & Kendall, P. C. (2014) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0034733 · Cited by 1,028
Sex differences in impulsivity: A meta-analysis.
Cross, C. P., Copping, L. T., & Campbell, A. (2011) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0021591 · Cited by 866
Biosocial construction of sex differences and similarities in behavior
Wood, W., & Eagly, A. H. (2012) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-394281-4.00002-7 · Cited by 770
“Less research attention has focused on girls' early-emerging advantage in effortful control, or self-regulatory skills (Else-Quest et al., 2006), which may enable them to act appropriately in the classroom when entering school and to achieve academically (Matthews, Ponitz, & Morrison, 2009).”
Early gender differences in self-regulation and academic achievement.
Matthews, J. S., Ponitz, C. C., & Morrison, F. J. (2009) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0014240 · Cited by 779
Nature and nurturing: parenting in the context of child temperament
Kiff, C. J., Lengua, L. J., & Zalewski, M. (2011) · Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10567-011-0093-4 · Cited by 658
“There is evidence of small mean differences across gender on fear and frustration (Else-Quest et al. 2006, Kohnstamm 1989) with girls being more fearful and boys being higher in frustration and anger.”
BackgroundDoes sexual selection explain human sex differences in aggression?
Archer, J. (2009) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x09990951 · Cited by 607
“It shows a large sex difference in favor of girls from early in postnatal life (Else-Quest et al. 2006).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialGender and Emotion Expression: A Developmental Contextual Perspective
Chaplin, T. M. (2014) · Emotion Review · doi:10.1177/1754073914544408 · Cited by 740
“In the first, Else-Quest et al. (2006) found a small but significant gender difference (girls > boys) in “fearfulness” (including observed fear expressions and parent-reports of child fear experiences and expressions; d = −.12) for children aged 3 months to 13 years and did not find moderation by…”
BackgroundThe Trouble with Boys: Social Influences and the Gender Gap in Disruptive Behavior
Bertrand, M., & Pan, J. (2013) · American Economic Journal Applied Economics · doi:10.1257/app.5.1.32 · Cited by 450
“In a meta-analysis of the psychology literature on gender differences in temperament, Else-Quest et al (2006) document lower levels of inhibitory control and perceptual sensitivity among boys, consistent with a greater incidence of externalizing behavior.”
BackgroundNeumann, A., van Lier, P. A. C., Gratz, K. L., & Koot, H. M. (2010) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191109349579 · Cited by 521
“Although past studies have found that girls are better at inhibiting inappropriate behavioral responses than boys (Else-Quest et al., 2006), it is possible that boys develop better inhibitory control as they age, becoming closer to their female counterparts in this regard during adolescence.”
BackgroundHolzman, J. B., & Bridgett, D. J. (2017) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.12.032 · Cited by 449
Interpersonal Stratification: Status, Power, and Subordination
Fiske, S. T. (2010) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470561119.socpsy002026 · Cited by 492
Mckay, P. F., Avery, D. R., & Morris, M. A. (2008) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2008.00116.x · Cited by 425
Gender Differences in Depression: Biological, Affective, Cognitive, and Sociocultural Factors
Hyde, J. S., & Mezulis, A. H. (2020) · Harvard Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/hrp.0000000000000230 · Cited by 385
“06.(27) In the absence of a gender difference in negative emotionality, another possible mechanism is a temperament stress interaction, with girls and women experiencing more stress than boys and men, beginning in early adolescence.”
BackgroundSelf-citationSocial and behavioral skills and the gender gap in early educational achievement
DiPrete, T. A., & Jennings, J. L. (2011) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2011.09.001 · Cited by 409
“(2011), doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2011.09.001 disadvantage the performance of their boys (Else-Quest et al., 2006; Schmitt et al., 2008).”
BackgroundInfluentialAllan, N. P., Hume, L. E., Allan, D. M., Farrington, A. L., & Lonigan, C. J. (2014) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0037493 · Cited by 385
Pauw, S. S. W. D., & Mervielde, I. (2010) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-009-0171-8 · Cited by 397
“These three traditions are considered to be the most salient in the research literature [1, 33].”
BackgroundSocial Role Theory of Sex Differences
Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (2016) · The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Gender and Sexuality Studies · doi:10.1002/9781118663219.wbegss183 · Cited by 401
Predicting Change in Parenting Stress Across Early Childhood: Child and Maternal Factors
Williford, A. P., Calkins, S. D., & Keane, S. P. (2006) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-006-9082-3 · Cited by 366
“Additionally, a recent meta-analysis examining gender differences in temperament traits found that girls demonstrated increased inhibitory control as well as greater ability to regulate their attention ( Else-Quest, Hyde, Goldsmith, & Van Hulle, 2006 ).”
BackgroundPutnam, S. P., Rothbart, M. K., & Gartstein, M. A. (2008) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.582 · Cited by 324
Male, female: The evolution of human sex differences (2nd ed.).
Geary, D. C. (2010) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/12072-000 · Cited by 350
Gender differences in self-conscious emotional experience: A meta-analysis.
Else-Quest, N. M., Higgins, A., Allison, C., & Morton, L. C. (2012) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0027930 · Cited by 464
Self-citationEndendijk, J. J., Groeneveld, M. G., Bakermans‐Kranenburg, M. J., & Mesman, J. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0159193 · Cited by 427
“First, the effect size for controlling strategies was largest in studies with children between 0 and 2-years-old, a time in which gender differences in disruptive behavior or difficult temperament are generally less pronounced [59], [208], [209].”
BackgroundSex differences in sensation-seeking: a meta-analysis
Cross, C., Cyrenne, D. M., & Brown, G. R. (2013) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep02486 · Cited by 343
Martel, M. M. (2013) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0032247 · Cited by 348
Child Temperament: An Integrative Review of Concepts, Research Programs, and Measures
Zentner, M. R., & Bates, J. E. (2008) · International Journal of Developmental Science · doi:10.3233/dev-2008-21203 · Cited by 307
Martel, M. M. (2009) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02105.x · Cited by 306
“A meta-analysis on gender differences in temperament in children between the ages of 3 months and 13 years indicates that girls typically exhibit higher levels of effortful control, while boys exhibit higher levels of positive affect (Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
BackgroundSex differences in the neural correlates of emotion: evidence from neuroimaging
Whittle, S., Yücel, M., Yap, M. B. H., & Allen, N. B. (2011) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2011.05.003 · Cited by 305
“For example, females appear to exhibit greater affiliative tendencies (Else-Quest et al., 2006), are more sensitive to social–emotional cues (Byrd-Craven and Geary, 2007), and score higher on indices of neuroticism than males (Costa et al., 2001).”
InfluentialEagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (2013) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691613484767 · Cited by 471
The reality and evolutionary significance of human psychological sex differences
Archer, J. (2019) · Biological Reviews · doi:10.1111/brv.12507 · Cited by 291
“Sex differences in fear show cross-national consistency (Brebner, 2003) and are found during childhood (Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
BackgroundLi, D., Zhang, W., Li, X., Zhen, S., & Wang, Y. (2010) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2010.03.031 · Cited by 268
Publication bias examined in meta-analyses from psychology and medicine: A meta-meta-analysis
van Aert, R. C. M., Wicherts, J. M., & van Assen, M. A. L. M. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0215052 · Cited by 365
Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure
Rozental, A., & Carlbring, P. (2014) · Psychology · doi:10.4236/psych.2014.513160 · Cited by 251
She’s emotional. He’s having a bad day: Attributional explanations for emotion stereotypes.
Barrett, L. F., & Bliss-Moreau, E. (2009) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0016821 · Cited by 229
Denham, S. A., Bassett, H. H., Thayer, S., Mincic, M. S., Sirotkin, Y. S., & Zinsser, K. M. (2012) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221325.2011.597457 · Cited by 260
Impulsivity in the general population: A national study
Chamorro-Delmo, J., Bernardi, S., Potenza, M. N., Grant, J. E., Marsh, R., Wang, S., & Blanco, C. (2012) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.04.023 · Cited by 244
“Sex differences in fear of harm or injury (Else-Quest et al., 2006) may leadwomen tomake less risky decisions thanmen, especially when the risks are physical or life-threatening (Stoltenberg et al.”
BackgroundMurray, L., Arteche, A. X., Fearon, P. R. M., Halligan, S. L., Croudace, T. J., & Cooper, P. (2010) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02259.x · Cited by 205
Bornstein, M. H. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118963418.childpsy403 · Cited by 229
Test anxiety prevalence and gender differences in a sample of English secondary school students
Putwain, D., & Daly, A. L. (2014) · Educational Studies · doi:10.1080/03055698.2014.953914 · Cited by 263
“…in anxiety may arise from combinations of differing temperament, and levels of exposure and vulnerability to threat situations, in conjunction with psychosocial influences regarding gender roles (Ben-Zur and Zeidner 2012; Davis, Burleson, and Kruszewski 2011; Else-Quest et al. 2006; Zeidner 2014).”
BackgroundAllan, N. P., & Lonigan, C. J. (2011) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0023748 · Cited by 208
“As evidenced by a meta-analysis of temperament, girls appear to have greater EC than do boys (Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
MethodChoe, D. E., Olson, S. L., & Sameroff, A. J. (2013) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579412001162 · Cited by 201
“This study extends Goodman and Gotlib’s (1999) integrative model of mechanisms underlying the interplay of mother and child psychopathology by examining whether elevated maternal distress in preschool contributes to higher levels of childhood externalizing behavior through lower levels of positive parenting and EC.”
BackgroundThe evolutionary psychology of women's aggression
Campbell, A. C. (2013) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2013.0078 · Cited by 248
“Meta-analyses indicate no sex difference in anger either in adults [37] or in children [54].”
BackgroundVerstraeten, K., Vasey, M. W., Raes, F., & Bijttebier, P. (2008) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-008-9293-x · Cited by 190
“Given that prior studies have reported sex differences in temperament during adolescence, ruminative response style and depressive symptoms (see e.g., Abela et al. 2007; Else-Quest et al. 2006 ), sex was included as a moderator in all analyses.”
BackgroundScreen media use and ADHD-related behaviors: Four decades of research
Beyens, I., Valkenburg, P. M., & Piotrowski, J. T. (2018) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1611611114 · Cited by 190
“On average, boys exhibit lower levels of inhibitory control than girls (47).”
Personality Testing and Industrial–Organizational Psychology: Reflections, Progress, and Prospects
Hough, L. M., & Oswald, F. L. (2008) · Industrial and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1754-9434.2008.00048.x · Cited by 181
Lunkenheimer, E. S., Dishion, T. J., Shaw, D. S., Connell, A. M., Gardner, F. E. M., Wilson, M. N., & Skuban, E. M. (2008) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0013858 · Cited by 172
Feminism and psychology: Analysis of a half-century of research on women and gender.
Eagly, A. H., Eaton, A. A., Rose, S. M., Riger, S., & McHugh, M. C. (2012) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/a0027260 · Cited by 186
The contribution of agreeableness and self‐efficacy beliefs to prosociality
Caprara, G. V., Alessandri, G., Giunta, L. D., Panerai, L., & Eisenberg, N. (2009) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.739 · Cited by 181
Gut microbiome composition is associated with temperament during early childhood
Christian, L. M., Galley, J. D., Hade, E. M., Schoppe-Sullivan, S., Kamp Dush, C., & Bailey, M. T. (2015) · Brain, Behavior, and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2014.10.018 · Cited by 191
“Indeed, sex differences in temperament have been established (Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
BackgroundParents’ Nonstandard Work Schedules and Child Well-Being: A Critical Review of the Literature
Li, J., Johnson, S. E., Han, W., Andrews, S., Kendall, G. E., Strazdins, L. M., & Dockery, A. M. (2013) · The Journal of Primary Prevention · doi:10.1007/s10935-013-0318-z · Cited by 230
A socio-relational framework of sex differences in the expression of emotion
Vigil, J. M. (2009) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x09991075 · Cited by 173
“…(e.g., Rudman 2004; see also Forgas 2003), intra-group biases and prejudice (Ekehammar et al. 2003), temperament and personality characteristics (e.g., Cohn 1991; Else-Quest et al. 2006; Feingold 1994), and public policy behaviors (e.g., opinions on judicial philosophy; Gault & Sabini 2000).”
BackgroundGartstein, M. A., Bridgett, D. J., Rothbart, M. K., Robertson, C. D., Iddins, E., Ramsay, K., & Schlect, S. D. (2010) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0018898 · Cited by 131
Personality and Psychopathology: A Stagnant Field in Need of Development
Durbin, C. E., & Hicks, B. M. (2014) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.1962 · Cited by 173
Zhou, Q., Hofer, C., Eisenberg, N., Reiser, M., Spinrad, T. L., & Fabes, R. A. (2007) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.2.369 · Cited by 176
“Consistent with the literature on effortful control (Else-Quest et al., 2006) and externalizing (Côté et al.”
BackgroundChildhood personality as a harbinger of competence and resilience in adulthood
Shiner, R. L., & Masten, A. S. (2012) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579412000120 · Cited by 214
von Suchodoletz, A., Gestsdóttir, S., Wanless, S. B., McClelland, M. M., Birgisdóttir, F., Gunzenhauser, C., & Ragnarsdóttir, H. (2012) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2012.05.003 · Cited by 190
Rey, R. D., Lazuras, L., Casas, J. A., Barkoukis, V., Ruiz, R. O., & Tsorbatzoudis, H. (2015) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2015.11.021 · Cited by 179
Sallquist, J., Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., Reiser, M., Hofer, C., Zhou, Q., Liew, J., & Eggum, N. D. (2009) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0013970 · Cited by 168
“…1991) and with younger children's emotionality (see Else-Quest et al., 2006), the tentative predictions were that boys would be higher in positive emotional intensity than girls and boys and girls would be similar in their negative emotional intensity (Else-Quest et al., 2006; Murphy et al., 1999).”
InfluentialWinsler, A., Deutsch, A., Vorona, R. D., Payne, P. A., & Szklo-Coxe, M. (2015) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-014-0170-3 · Cited by 164
Gender differences in school achievement: The role of self-regulation
Weis, M., Heikamp, T., & Trommsdorff, G. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00442 · Cited by 177
Gendered parenting in early childhood: subtle but unmistakable if you know where to look
Mesman, J., & Groeneveld, M. G. (2018) · Child Development Perspectives · doi:10.1111/cdep.12250 · Cited by 165
“However, sex differences in children’s behavior are absent or small in infancy (21) and emerge slowly in early childhood (1).”
BackgroundGender differences in privacy tendencies on social network sites: A meta-analysis
Tifferet, S. (2018) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.11.046 · Cited by 186
Sex differences in Cloninger's temperament dimensions—a meta-analysis
Miettunen, J., Veijola, J. M., Lauronen, E., Kantojärvi, L., & Joukamaa, M. I. (2007) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2006.10.007 · Cited by 153
“Regarding sex differences in personality, there was recently a meta-analysis on children’s temperament [8] and earlier meta-analyses on other models of personality [9,10].”
ResultThe relation of attachment security status to effortful self-regulation: A meta-analysis.
Pallini, S., Chirumbolo, A., Morelli, M., Baiocco, R., Laghi, F., & Eisenberg, N. (2018) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000134 · Cited by 162
The development of human female competition: allies and adversaries
Benenson, J. F. (2013) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2013.0079 · Cited by 181
“From birth, female neonates exhibit fewer negative emotions, less intense activity [80–82] and greater self-regulation [83].”
BackgroundReciprocal Relations Among Self‐Efficacy Beliefs and Prosociality Across Time
Alessandri, G., Caprara, G. V., Eisenberg, N., & Steca, P. (2009) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00580.x · Cited by 173
“…of positive interpersonal abilities, such as empathy or prosocial behavior and the modulated expression of positive emotion (Eisenberg et al., 2006; Else-Quest et al., 2006), whereas, consistent with the masculine role, males tended to be high in the ability to manage the expression of negative…”
BackgroundGut microbiota composition is associated with temperament traits in infants
Aatsinki, A.-K., Lahti, L., Uusitupa, H.-M., Munukka, E., Keskitalo, A., Nolvi, S., O'Mahony, S., Pietilä, S., Elo, L. L., Eerola, E., et al. (2019) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2019.05.035 · Cited by 148
“However, boys typically show more surgency and its subscales (Else-Quest et al., 2006; Willoughby et al., 2015) as reported by parents and observed in laboratory settings (Gagne et al.”
Kang, Y., Rahrig, H., Eichel, K., Niles, H. F., Rocha, T., Lepp, N. E., Gold, J., & Britton, W. B. (2018) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2018.03.004 · Cited by 143
Hosokawa, R., & Katsura, T. (2018) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph16010021 · Cited by 203
“The model focusing on gender in early intervention programs suggests that permissive discipline may be particularly detrimental for boys, perhaps because boys have less well-developed self-regulation processes than similarly aged girls [92,93].”
BackgroundGender Development Research in Sex Roles: Historical Trends and Future Directions
Zosuls, K. M., Miller, C. F., Ruble, D. N., Martin, C. L., & Fabes, R. A. (2011) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9902-3 · Cited by 136
“Although not an experimental method, the application of meta-analysis to the study of gender differences has once again highlighted the limited nature of differences between the genders and has illuminated the conditions under which gender differences are more or less likely to appear (e.g., Else-Quest et al. 2006; Hy…”
MethodGestsdóttir, S., von Suchodoletz, A., Wanless, S. B., Hubert, B., Guimard, P., Birgisdóttir, F., Gunzenhauser, C., & McClelland, M. M. (2014) · Applied Developmental Science · doi:10.1080/10888691.2014.894870 · Cited by 151
Sallquist, J., Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., Eggum, N. D., & Gaertner, B. M. (2009) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760902819444 · Cited by 146
“Researchers also have found that girls are rated higher in certain types of positive emotion compared to boys; however, the difference favoring girls has typically been found with moderated positive affect and not intense positive emotions (Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
BackgroundGender, Emotion, and Socialization
Brody, L. R., & Hall, J. A. (2010) · Handbook of Gender Research in Psychology · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1465-1_21 · Cited by 138
Todd, B. K., Fischer, R. A., Costa, S. D., Roestorf, A., Harbour, K., Hardiman, P., & Barry, J. A. (2017) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.2064 · Cited by 159
Bloom, H. S., & Weiland, C. (2015) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2594430 · Cited by 114
“This might reflect that fact that boys tend to lag behind girls in their socio-emotional development and have different developmental trajectories (Else-Quest et al., 2006; Matthews, Ponitz, and Morrison, 2009).”
BackgroundTemperament and Happiness in Children
Holder, M. D., & Klassen, A. (2009) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-009-9149-2 · Cited by 133
“As children develop, the behavioral manifestations of certain traits may change ( Else-Quest et al. 2006 ).”
BackgroundThe relations of effortful control and impulsivity to children's sympathy: A longitudinal study
Eisenberg, N., Michalik, N. M., Spinrad, T. L., Hofer, C., Kupfer, A. S., Valiente, C., Liew, J., Cumberland, A. J., & Reiser, M. (2007) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2007.08.003 · Cited by 115
McCoy, D. C., Waldman, M. R., & Fink, G. (2018) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.05.002 · Cited by 135
Meshkat, M., & Nejati, R. (2017) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/2158244017725796 · Cited by 183
Muris, P., & Meesters, C. M. G. (2008) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-008-9089-x · Cited by 126
“p<0.001], whereas boys showed higher levels of activity level [t(1,053)=3.96, p<0.001] and high intensity pleasure [t(1,053)=6.41, p<0.001] (cf. Else-Quest et al. 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialThomas, J. C., APrON Study Team, Letourneau, N. L., Campbell, T. S., Tomfohr‐Madsen, L. M., & Giesbrecht, G. F. (2017) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000279 · Cited by 163
Maternal prenatal stress and infant emotional reactivity six months postpartum
Nolvi, S., Karlsson, L., Bridgett, D. J., Korja, R., Huizink, A. C., Kataja, E., & Karlsson, H. (2016) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2016.04.020 · Cited by 135
Kostyrka‐Allchorne, K., Wass, S. V., & Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S. (2019) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13144 · Cited by 145
Gaertner, B. M., Spinrad, T. L., & Eisenberg, N. (2008) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.580 · Cited by 135
“…in life, our findings correspond with reported trends for girls scoring higher than boys on measures of attention during early and middle childhood (Else-Quest et al., 2006), as well as on related measures of self-regulation (Kochanska, Murray, & Coy, 1997; Kochanska, Murray, Jacques, Koenig, &…”
ResultBornstein, M. H. (2016) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119125556.devpsy405 · Cited by 111
Jones, D. J., Lewis, T. H., Litrownik, A. J., Thompson, R., Proctor, L. J., Isbell, P., Dubowitz, H., English, D., Jones, B. L., Nagin, D. S., et al. (2012) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-012-9656-1 · Cited by 107
Executive Function Among Preschool Children: Unitary Versus Distinct Abilities
Lerner, M. D., & Lonigan, C. J. (2014) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-014-9424-3 · Cited by 110
“In light of evidence from observer ratings of effortful control of attention in general (see Else-Quest et al. 2006, for review) and behavioral measures of IC in particular (Kochanska et al. 1996) that IC may be more developed among girls than boys during preschool, a final multi-sample model…”
Positivity: The Dispositional Basis of Happiness.
Caprara, G. V., Eisenberg, N., & Alessandri, G. (2017) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-016-9728-y · Cited by 112
Metadata
- Authors
- Else-Quest, N. M., Hyde, J. S., Goldsmith, H. H., & Van Hulle, C. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2006-01
- Volume
- 132
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 33-72
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W1979582482
- Cited by
- 1,169
- References
- 266
- Citations by year
- 2026: 50 · 2025: 41 · 2024: 51 · 2023: 37 · 2022: 61 · 2021: 68 · 2020: 74 · 2019: 73 · 2018: 67 · 2017: 75 · 2016: 74 · 2015: 77 · 2014: 64 · 2013: 81 · 2012: 61
- FWCI
- 5.25
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Keywords
- gender differences, temperament, effortful control, inhibitory control, perceptual sensitivity, surgency, negative affectivity, children, externalizing disorders, rough-and-tumble play, emotional reactivity
- MeSH terms
- Female, Humans, Male, Personality, Personality Development, Psychological Theory, Sex Factors, Temperament
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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