The DOI matches its Crossref record; 15 of the 15 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Gender differences in temperament: A meta-analysis.
Abstract
The authors used meta-analytical techniques to estimate the magnitude of gender differences in mean level and variability of 35 dimensions and 3 factors of temperament in children ages 3 months to 13 years. Effortful control showed a large difference favoring girls and the dimensions within that factor (e.g., inhibitory control: d = -.41, perceptual sensitivity: d = -0.38) showed moderate gender differences favoring girls, consistent with boys' greater incidence of externalizing disorders. Surgency showed a difference favoring boys, as did some of the dimensions within that factor (e.g., activity: d = 0.33, high-intensity pleasure: d = 0.30), consistent with boys' greater involvement in active rough-and-tumble play. Negative affectivity showed negligible gender differences.
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In the citing paper
“Given no gender difference in negative affectivity in infancy and childhood (Else-Quest et al., 2006), for temperament to account for the emergence of the gender difference in depression in adolescence requires an interaction between vulnerable temperament and some other factor, such as stress, with stress increasing dramatically in adolescence and increasing more for females than males.”
From Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms (2017) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“Findings suggest a small influence of gender, whereby men procrastinate slightly more than women do, revealing a weak negative correlation between the female gender and procrastination (r = -.08),possibly related to greater selfcontrol among women in general (van Eerde, 2003;Else-Quest, Hyde, Goldsmith, & van Hulle, 2006).”
From Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure (2014) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“females scored higher on agreeableness (SMD = 0.56)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“forgiveness (SMD = 0.28)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“neuroticism (SMD = 0.41)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“altruism (SMD = 0.11)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“morningness (SMD = 0.08)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“effortful control (SMD = 0.12)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“extraversion (SMD = 0.15)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“Males, on the other hand, were higher on negative reciprocity (SMD = 0.13)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“positive reciprocity (SMD = 0.06)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“sociotropy (SMD = 0.34”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“risk-taking (SMDs = 0.17–SMD = 0.36)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“general impulsivity (SMD = 0.09”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“patience (SMD = 0.05)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“Negative affectivity was the only univariate personality dimension that showed no sex differences (Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“trust (SMD = 0.06)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“narcissism (SMD = 0.27)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“The authors concluded that girls have a stronger ability than boys to regulate their attention and inhibit their impulses -skills that certainly serve girls well in the classroom (Blair and Razza, 2007).”
From Gender and Education (2015) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“A recent meta-analysis of temperament in childhood and preadolescence reported a large difference between boys ' and girls ' effortful control (Cohen ' s d ¼ 1.01; Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
From Gender and Education (2015) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“It should be noted, however, that boys and girls do not differ substantially in their ability to resist temptation or susceptibility to distraction (Else-Quest et al., 2006; Silverman, 2003).”
From Gender and Education (2015) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
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Kessler, R. (1993) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/0165-0327(93)90026-g · Cited by 2,207
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Ruiz-Ortiz, R. M., Carreras, R., del Puerto‐Golzarri, N., & Muñoz, J. M. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1405389 · Cited by 7
How Parents Play: Play Style as a Function of Gender of Parent, Gender of Child, and Play Context
Liu, C., Harrist, A. W., Cookston, J. T., & Carrillo, S. (2024) · Journal of Family Issues · doi:10.1177/0192513x241263782 · Cited by 6
“Some of these differences may be due to genetic differences: A meta-analysis across ages 3 months to 13 years showed gender differences in effortful control and surgency (Else-Quest et al., 2006) which likely impact toy and other play activity preferences.”
Rizzo, A., & Marra, P. (2023) · Quaderns de Psicología · doi:10.5565/rev/qpsicologia.1992 · Cited by 4
“Literature showed a higher prevalence of Novelty Seeking among men and Reward Dependence and Harm Avoidance among women (Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
BackgroundKurt, Ş. H., & Özgün, Ö. (2023) · Child Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s12187-022-10000-2 · Cited by 6
Min, M. O., Kim, J., Minnes, S., Kim, S., Rose, D. M., & Singer, L. T. (2022) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1002/jad.12056 · Cited by 7
Bilgici, B. G. (2022) · Kocaeli Üniversitesi Eğitim Dergisi · doi:10.33400/kuje.1057189 · Cited by 4
Signals and their detection: Basic perceptual sensitivity as a foundation for emotional clarity
Klein, R. J., & Robinson, M. D. (2021) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.110991 · Cited by 3
Attention effect on student's creative self-efficacy and the role of gender
Gajda, A., & Gralewski, J. (2021) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2021.100892 · Cited by 7
The longitudinal relations between disciplinary practices and emotion regulation in early years
Liu, C., Younkin, F. L., Hardman, M. L., Buchanan, B., Nugent, N., Pettus, M., & Lawrence, B. C. (2021) · Personal Relationships · doi:10.1111/pere.12401 · Cited by 5
Strengthening the resilience of Myanmar children studying in monastic schools
Phyu, K. H., & Han, B. (2021) · Archive for the Psychology of Religion · doi:10.1177/00846724211036960 · Cited by 3
“While developmental psychologists have highlighted gender differences in the process of developing personal resources such as temperament (Else-Quest et al., 2006), personal characteristics (Hyde, 2005), and personality traits (De Bolle et al., 2015), it is suggested that further study of the…”
BackgroundAgostini, F., Benassi, M., Minelli, M., Mandolesi, L., Giovagnoli, S., & Neri, E. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18115522 · Cited by 5
“[17] indicated that girls tend to be higher in inhibitory control, shyness and some fearful behaviors, whereas boys are higher in approach-based tendencies such as anger, exuberance, and activity level.”
BackgroundLuo, M., Pappa, I., Cecil, C. A. M., Jansen, P. R., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Kok, R. (2021) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-021-01154-1 · Cited by 8
Children’s Temperament: A Bridge between Mothers’ Parenting and Aggression
Carrasco, M. Á., Delgado, B., & Tello, F. P. H. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17176382 · Cited by 6
“In addition, girls tend to exhibit more effortful control than boys [48,49], so we could expect that the mediating effects of temperament might operate differently for boys and girls.”
BackgroundFood habits, health behaviors related to the personality in Korean college students
Kim, N., Kim, J., & Kye, S. (2020) · Journal of Nutrition and Health · doi:10.4163/jnh.2020.53.1.13 · Cited by 2
“또한 성격연구자들은 어린시절부터 성격 특성에서 성별 차이가 발견됨을 밝혀 왔으 며, 특히 신경증과 외향성은 다양한 문화에서 일관적으로 발견되는 중요한 성별 차이이다 [28].”
New brief temperament guidance program for parents of infants: A pilot evaluation
Iverson, S. L., Desmarais, É., Neumann, A. A., & Gartstein, M. A. (2020) · Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing · doi:10.1111/jcap.12263 · Cited by 3
Maidullah, S., & Sharma, A. (2019) · Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews · doi:10.18510/hssr.2019.7567 · Cited by 4
“…hemispheric dominance (Everhart et al. 2001), cognitive processes (Geary 1996; Schumacher & Morahan-Martin 2001) personality (Darley & Smith 1995; Else-Quest et al. 2006; Meyers-levy & Loken 2014), information search and processing (ChanLin 1999; Kim, Lehto, & Morrison 2007; Shashaani 1997) show…”
BackgroundDamian, R. I., Atherton, O. E., Lawson, K. M., & Robins, R. W. (2019) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2019.103883 · Cited by 3
Silencing Self and Other through Autobiographical Narratives
Fıvush, R., & Pasupathi, M. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108345552.008 · Cited by 10
Male and female students' uptake in responding to oral corrective feedback
Amalia, Z. D. H., Fauziati, E., & Marmanto, S. (2019) · Journal on English as a Foreign Language · doi:10.23971/jefl.v9i1.1047 · Cited by 4
“Moreover, Else-Quest et al. (2006) also state that girl students are shown to be more able to manage and regulate their attention.”
BackgroundHassan, R., Day, K. L., Lieshout, R. J. V., & Schmidt, L. A. (2019) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221325.2019.1580246 · Cited by 4
The neural basis underlying procrastination: a large-scale study of brain networks
Ti, S. U., Guo, Y., Chen, Z., Zhang, S., Huang, X., & Feng, T. (2018) · Scientia Sinica Vitae · doi:10.1360/n052018-00158 · Cited by 5
Barone, L., Carta, A., & Öztürk, Y. (2018) · Attachment & Human Development · doi:10.1080/14616734.2018.1528620 · Cited by 4
Gunewardena, D., King, E. M., & Valerio, A. (2018) · doi:10.1596/1813-9450-8588 · Cited by 4
Goshvarpour, A., Goshvarpour, A., & Abbasi, A. (2018) · Biomedical Engineering Applications Basis and Communications · doi:10.4015/s101623721850028x · Cited by 4
“Female informed more sadness than male, while the boys try to hide the sadness.(42,43) In terms of physiological parameters, by analyzing event-related potential and skin conductance signals, it was shown that negative inducements are processed di®erently in men and women; women processed negative emotions rapidly.”
BackgroundFatigue biases the decoy effect in males but not females
Wu, S., & Yu, R. (2018) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1002/ijop.12516 · Cited by 4
Gornik, A. E., Neal, J. W., Lo, S. L., & Durbin, C. E. (2017) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/sode.12271 · Cited by 6
Holzman, J. B. W., Burt, N. M., Edwards, E. S., Rosinski, L. D., & Bridgett, D. J. (2017) · Infancy · doi:10.1111/infa.12223 · Cited by 3
Academic Procrastination among Gifted and Ordinary Students and its Relationship with Some Variables
التح, ز. خ., & Alshurman, W. M. (2017) · International Journal of Education · doi:10.5296/ije.v9i3.11224 · Cited by 4
Structural Analysis of the Abridged Big Five Circumplex
Cohen, E. H., & Deuling, J. K. (2014) · Bulletin of Sociological Methodology/Bulletin de Méthodologie Sociologique · doi:10.1177/0759106314521971 · Cited by 4
Prady, S. L., KIERNAN, K. E., Fairley, L., & Wright, J. (2013) · Child Care in Practice · doi:10.1080/13575279.2013.799458 · Cited by 2
“…2006), mental health (Britton, 2011; Vostanis et al., 2006), experience with childrearing (Fish & Stifter, 1993; Mebert & Kalimowski, 1986), socio-economic position (Hill, 2006) and child gender (Else-Quest et al., 2006) have also been associated with variations in parenting or infant temperament.”
BackgroundResultChinese parenting and children's compliance to adults: a cross-cultural comparative study
Huang, C. (2013) · Apollo (University of Cambridge) · doi:10.17863/cam.16472 · Cited by 6
“However, the current study did not find significant gender differences in effortful control, a dimension on which girls usually outperform boys (Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
BackgroundMieyaa, Y. (2012) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/4b65c46dz3464z4e5cz87a2z73a8613d4f9f · Cited by 4
“Else-Quest et al. (2006) expliquent cette différence par de plus grandes capacités d’auto-régulation chez les fill s que chez les garçons.”
BackgroundSchweder, S., & Raufelder, D. (2021) · Edition ZfE · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-31064-6_9 · Cited by 4
Valles, N. (2012) · doi:10.17077/etd.r23yuanm · Cited by 1
“Moreover, a meta-analysis examining gender differences in the broad temperament 24 factors found that gender differences are greater for Effortful Control and small—but present—for Negative Affectivity and Surgency/Extraversion (Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialPrioste, A., Cruz, D., & Narciso, I. (2010) · doi:10.14195/1647-8606_52-1_22 · Cited by 4
Bashful Boys and Coy Girls: A Review of Gender Differences in Childhood Shyness
Doey, L., Coplan, R. J., & Kingsbury, M. K. (2013) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-013-0317-9 · Cited by 246
Spillover Effects of Old-Age Pension Across Generations: Family Labor Supply and Child Outcomes
Kaufmann, K., Özdemir, Y., & Ye, H. (2026) · Social Science Research Network · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4151169 · Cited by 3
Executive functions as mediators of early educational disparities by SES, gender and birth month
Rémeau, M., Schmitt, P., & Borst, G. (2026) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-026-00422-w · Cited by 3
Socializers’ mindsets predict students’ mindsets and learning outcomes: evidence from nine countries
Kim, S., Jeong, D., Nagengast, B., & Bong, M. (2026) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-026-01067-4 · Cited by 3
“Compared to boys, girls are better at understanding the beliefs and desires of others (Devine & Hughes, 2013) and detecting subtle cues in their environment (Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
Project-Based Activity as a Means of Socio-Emotional Development in Preschool Children
Plotnikova, V. A., Veraksa, А., Veraksa, N. E., & Nikolaeva, N. S. (2025) · Integration of Education · doi:10.15507/1991-9468.029.202502.339-354 · Cited by 7
Berger, M., Bruggisser, F., Schwarz, A., Leuenberger, R., Hanke, M., Gerber, M., & Ludyga, S. (2025) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2025.114820 · Cited by 3
Absent or Hidden? Hyperactivity in Females With ADHD
Wettstein, R., Navarro-Ovando, V., Pirgon, E., Kroesen, J., Wettstein, K., Kroesen, H., Mathôt, R. A. A., & Dumont, G. (2024) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/10870547241273152 · Cited by 4
“…reports that females may have more robust behavioral self-regulation mechanisms and may be more inclined to conform to socially accepted standards (Else-Quest et al., 2006; Franklin et al., 2018; Petersen & Grahe, 2012), which in turn may result in masking hyperactivity (Young et al., 2020).”
Miller‐Slough, R. L., Parungao, D., West, C., & Dunsmore, J. C. (2024) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221325.2024.2384383 · Cited by 3
“Else-Quest et al. (2006) reported that these gender differences in temperament widened with age.”
InfluentialChild temperament and trajectories of student–teacher relationships quality
Harvey, E., Déry, M., Lemelin, J., & Bégin, V. (2024) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.14150 · Cited by 3
Gender and socioeconomic perspectives on students’ emotional well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic
Christensen, J. H. (2024) · Research in Comparative and International Education · doi:10.1177/17454999241265966 · Cited by 5
“These gender-based emotional differences may also have in fl uence on their educational experiences and outcomes (Carvalho, 2016; Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
Association between number of confidants and adolescent anxiety/depression: a school-based study
Nishida, A., Foo, J. C., Yamaguchi, S., Togo, F., Shimodera, S., Nishida, A., Okazaki, Y., & Sasaki, T. (2024) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/s13034-024-00778-0 · Cited by 3
“It has been suggested that boys have more difficulty recognizing their mental health problems [39] and are more prone to engage in externalizing behavior [17].”
BackgroundSociability across Eastern–Western cultures: Is it the same underlying construct?
Kong, X., Brook, C. A., Zhong, J., Liu, J., & Schmidt, L. A. (2024) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/sjop.13053 · Cited by 3
Yeshua, M., & Berger, A. (2024) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence12040041 · Cited by 3
“…Torpey et al. (2012) found in a sample of children ranging in age between 5 and 7.5 years, that girls were slower than boys on trials after commission errors, consistent with the overall findings by Else-Quest et al. (2006) that girls tend to be higher in effortful control and lower in impulsivity.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialA genetically informed longitudinal study of early-life temperament and childhood aggression
Penichet, E. N., Beam, C. R., Luczak, S. E., & Davis, D. W. (2025) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579424000634 · Cited by 2
“…several studies have reported quantitative sex differences for activity (Campbell & Eaton, 1999; Eaton & Yu, 1989; Goggin, 1975), effortful control (Else-Quest et al., 2006; Gagne et al., 2013), and sociability (Gunnar Development and Psychopathology & Donahue, 1980; Olino et al., 2013), showing…”
Temperament in Toddlers With and Without Prelingual Hearing Loss.
Castellanos, I., & Houston, D. (2023) · Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2023_jslhr-23-00182 · Cited by 3
“Else-Quest et al. (2006) reported little to no evidence of gender differences in negative affectivity for children within this age range.”
InfluentialThe influence of temperament and sex on inhibitory control games: reward strategies
Barcenilla, C. C., & Rojas‐Barahona, C. A. (2023) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-023-04779-8 · Cited by 3
“The meta-analysis performed by Else-Quest et al. ( 2006 ) incorporated a total of 189 empirical articles.”
Karonen, A., Kataja, E., Bridgett, D. J., Paunio, T., Kantojärvi, K., Korja, R., Karlsson, H., Karlsson, L., & Nolvi, S. (2023) · Nordic Psychology · doi:10.1080/19012276.2023.2173275 · Cited by 3
“For instance, on the behavioral level, girls in the normal population are known to express higher effortful control (i.e., attention regulation and inhibitory control, which are also components of EF) than boys (Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
BackgroundMarried women with children experience greater intrasexual competition than their male counterparts
Benenson, J. F., & Markovits, H. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-31816-0 · Cited by 3
Antoniou, F., & Al-Khadim, G. S. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.960086 · Cited by 3
“Furthermore, differences in the variability in measuring temperament were reported with boys having more variable temperament estimates compared to girls (Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
BackgroundReynolds, M. R., Izzo, J. R., & Schultz, R. C. (2022) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/07342829221111225 · Cited by 3
Behavioral inhibition as an early life predictor of callous-unemotional traits
Dapprich, A. L., Tyborowska, A., Niermann, H. C. M., Becker, E. S., Cillessen, A. H. N., & Roelofs, K. (2022) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/01650254221100245 · Cited by 6
“Previous research has shown that gender differences in BI only emerge in adolescence and suggest that this is because restraint is rather encouraged in girls, but less accepted in boys (Doey et al., 2014; Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
BackgroundFinkel, D., Davis, D. W., Giangrande, E. J., Womack, S. R., Turkheimer, E. N., & Beam, C. R. (2021) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13704 · Cited by 4
“A recent meta-analysis of sex differences in temperament reported a modest advantage for girls in persistence and for boys in lack of shyness, but few sex differences in reactivity (Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
BackgroundComplex nonverbal response inhibition and stopping impulsivity in childhood stuttering
Ofoe, L. C., & Anderson, J. D. (2021) · Journal of Fluency Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jfludis.2021.105877 · Cited by 7
Sofologi, M., Koulouri, S., Μoraitou, D., & Παπαντωνίου, Γ. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11030333 · Cited by 6
“Additionally, a third aim of the present study, based on the literature review of Cosentino-Rocha and Linhares (2013) [31], Else-Quest, Hyde, Goldsmith, and Van Hulle (2006) [32], and Walker, Berthelsen, and Irving (2001) [33], was the evaluation of gender differences in the three components of temperament (extraversi…”
BackgroundMethodResultTemperamental Characteristics of Pre-School Children Who Stutter
Lee, E.-A., Choi, S. H., Choi, C.-H., & Lee, K. (2020) · doi:10.21848/asr.200052 · Cited by 3
Activity‐oriented teaching of stochastics in elementary school
Kipman, U., Kühberger, A., & Pletzer, B. (2019) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12226 · Cited by 3
Gender differences in the quality of psychosocial stimulation in rural Bangladesh homes
Hossain, S. J., Tofail, F., Hasan, M. I., Mehrin, S. F., Aktar, S., & Hamadani, J. (2018) · Child: Care, Health and Development · doi:10.1111/cch.12568 · Cited by 3
Buthmann, J. L., Finik, J. M., & Nomura, Y. (2018) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025418757705 · Cited by 3
Kourmousi, N., Markogiannakis, G., Lazaridis, I., Kolliopoulou, K., Papoutsaki, K., Kounenou, K., Tzavara, C. K., & Koutras, V. (2017) · Creative Education · doi:10.4236/ce.2017.814161 · Cited by 3
“…poorer self-control and self-regulation capabilities (Kourmousi, 2012; Schick & Cierpka, 2005; Perry et al., 2003; Brody & Hall, 2000) and more aggressive or inappropriate behaviors (Kourmousi, 2012; Else-Quest et al., 2006, Walker, 2005; Perry et al., 2003) compared to their female classmates.”
BackgroundIntrinsic Brain Activity Responsible for Sex Differences in Shyness and Social Anxiety
Yang, X., Zhou, M., Lama, S., Chen, L., Hu, X., Wang, S., Chen, T., Shi, Y., Huang, X., & Gong, Q. (2017) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2017.00043 · Cited by 4
The Role of a Temperament Intervention in Kindergarten Children’s Standardized Academic Achievement
Collins, A., O’Connor, E. E., & McClowry, S. (2017) · Journal of Education and Training Studies · doi:10.11114/jets.v5i2.2138 · Cited by 6
Friedman, C. K., Ryan, S. R., Charles, N. E., Mathias, C. W., Acheson, A., & Dougherty, D. M. (2016) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.3109/10826084.2016.1168440 · Cited by 4
Choi, E., & Song, H. (2014) · Korean Journal of Child Studies · doi:10.5723/kjcs.2014.35.6.65 · Cited by 3
Our Sexy Brain; Our Compelling Environment: Interactionism in Female Development
Silverman, D. K. (2010) · The Psychoanalytic Review · doi:10.1521/prev.2010.97.1.1 · Cited by 2
“(Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
BackgroundInfants' responses to the still-face situation at five and nine months: Focusing on sex differences
Egami, S., Kutsuki, A., Ogura, T., Kubo, K., & Itakura, S. (2008) · The Japanese journal of psychology · doi:10.4992/jjpsy.79.150 · Cited by 1
Behavior Problems in Four-Year-Old Children from a Brazilian Birth Cohort
da Cruz, S. H., Piccinini, C. A., Matijasevich, A., & Santos, I. S. (2021) · Psicologia Teoria e Pesquisa · doi:10.1590/0102.3772e37301 · Cited by 3
They Can’t Breathe: Why Neighborhoods Matter for the Health of African American Men and Boys
Powell, W. A., Taggart, T., Richmond, J., Adams, L. B., & Brown, A. L. (2016) · National symposium on family issues · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-43847-4_14 · Cited by 3
The contribution of temperament to children's happiness
Klassen, A. (2008) · cIRcle (University of British Columbia) · doi:10.14288/1.0066807
“As previously mentioned, as children develop and mature, the behavioural manifestations of certain traits may change (Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
BackgroundNot all babies are the same: an examination of temperament profiles during infancy
Meloche, C., Zdebik, M. A., Lemelin, J., & Pearson, J. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1727489 · Cited by 2
Diprossimo, L., Meyer, M., Lüdemann, C., Hunnius, S., & Kärtner, J. (2026) · Infancy · doi:10.1111/infa.70080 · Cited by 2
“Such findings could also reflect the greater inter‐individual variability in temperament typically observed in boys (Else‐Quest et al. 2006).”
Inter-neural co-regulation before and after an interactive perturbation in mother-infant dyads
Capelli, E. S., Provenzi, L., Pili, M. P., Riva, V., Billeci, L., Cremaschi, G., D'Alfonso, S., Günay, Y., Roberti, E., & Borgatti, R. (2026) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-026-36750-5 · Cited by 2
Yaffe, Y., & Karny, S. (2025) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221325.2025.2496272 · Cited by 2
“In turn, especially among boys whose self-regulation processes and temperamental characteristics differ from girls of the same age (Else-Quest et al., 2006; Hosokawa & Katsura, 2018; Matthews et al., 2009), the permissive rearing style might be particularly harmful, often associated with…”
Awake infant fMRI: Insights from more than 750 scanning sessionsPreprint
Behm, L., Yates, T. S., Trach, J. E., Choi, D., Du, H., Osumah, C., Deen, B., Kosakowski, H. L., Chen, E. M., Kamps, F. S., et al. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.02.20.636736 · Cited by 2
“However, there was no sex difference in negative affectivity (40) — the only trait related to scanning success in the overall sample.”
Gender‐stereotypical attribution of fear and fearlessness in preschool children
Kelesidou, S., Bonoti, F., Abakoumkin, G., & Misailidi, P. (2024) · British Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjdp.12539 · Cited by 2
“In another meta-analysis of gender differences in temperament in children aged from 3 months to 13 years, girls showed higher fearfulness than boys (Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
Is Temperament Associated with Academic School Readiness in Children Born Very Preterm?
Tamm, L., Peugh, J., & Parikh, N. A. (2024) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409289.2024.2404821 · Cited by 3
“For example, temperament ratings (i.e., surgency and effortful control) differ by sex (Else-Quest et al., 2006), sex differences in school readiness have been reported (Kent & Pitsia, 2018), socioeconomic background has been shown to influence temperament development (Bornstein et al., 2019;…”
Investigating gender and racial-ethnic biases in sentiment analysis of language
Zhou, S., & Srivastava, A. (2024) · Cogent Psychology · doi:10.1080/23311908.2024.2396695 · Cited by 4
“…and fear opens the door to further investigation; prior research has focused on how females express more amount of emotions like anger and fear (else-Quest et al., 2006). the finding that anger and fear ‘matter less’ in explaining negative emotions points to further research to investigate if…”
Faure‐Carvallo, A., Nieto-Fernández, S., Calderón, C., & Carnicer, J. G. (2024) · Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education · doi:10.1108/jarhe-07-2023-0298 · Cited by 3
Kotelnikova, Y., Mackrell, S. V. M., Clark, L. A., & Hayden, E. P. (2023) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2023.104448 · Cited by 2
Kahraman, Ö. G., Özyürek, A., & Arabaci, N. (2023) · Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi · doi:10.32709/akusosbil.1031138 · Cited by 2
He, Q., Tao, W., Wang, Y., Yu, Y., & Zhang, J.-X. (2023) · PsyCh Journal · doi:10.1002/pchj.627 · Cited by 2
Slomp, C., Morris, E. M., Hippman, C., Inglis, A., Carrion, P. B., Batallones, R., Andrighetti, H. J., Albert, A., & Austin, J. (2023) · Maternal and Child Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10995-022-03583-3 · Cited by 2
“, 1997), as well as several reports of no sex differences in infant temperament (Buthmann et al., 2018; Else-Quest et al., 2006; Farkas & Vallotton, 2016; Gartstein & Rothbart, 2003; Lahey et al., 2008).”
BackgroundOr, M. B., Ishai, R., Barkay, N., & Shalev, O. (2022) · Children · doi:10.3390/children9091387 · Cited by 6
Zhou, A. M., Trainer, A., Vallorani, A., Fu, X., & Buss, K. A. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.911913 · Cited by 4
Children's inductive inferences about individuals with gender category uncertainty
Boseovski, J. J., & Yuly‐Youngblood, A. C. (2022) · Social development (Oxford. Print) · doi:10.1111/sode.12609 · Cited by 2
The Relationship of Dental Anxiety, Behaviour, Temperament and Dental Caries in Children
Kaya, E., & Yıldırım, S. (2021) · Archives of Orofacial Sciences · doi:10.21315/aos2021.16.2.2 · Cited by 4
Santelices, M. P., Vallotton, C. D., Farkas, C., Chang, T., Franco-Chalco, E., & Gallardo, A. M. (2021) · Children · doi:10.3390/children8100874 · Cited by 4
“This could be explained by different levels of self-regulation [83,84] and variation in regulation temperament elements [85] in girls versus boys.”
BackgroundGolmohammadi, G., Zarifian, T., Ghanbari, S., Bakhshi, E., & Sakhai, F. (2020) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-020-00918-7 · Cited by 3
Lee, H. Y., & Doan, S. N. (2020) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221325.2020.1751044 · Cited by 4
Stroop-like animal size test: Links with child effortful control, personality and problem behavior
Bairova, N. B., Bocharov, A. V., Savostyanov, A. N., Petrenko, E. N., Козлова, Е. А., Сапрыгин, А. Е., & Slobodskaya, H. R. (2019) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2019.1665173 · Cited by 5
Metadata
- Authors
- Else-Quest, N. M., Hyde, J. S., Goldsmith, H. H., & Van Hulle, C. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2006-01
- Volume
- 132
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 33-72
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W1979582482
- Cited by
- 1,169
- References
- 266
- Citations by year
- 2026: 50 · 2025: 41 · 2024: 51 · 2023: 37 · 2022: 61 · 2021: 68 · 2020: 74 · 2019: 73 · 2018: 67 · 2017: 75 · 2016: 74 · 2015: 77 · 2014: 64 · 2013: 81 · 2012: 61
- FWCI
- 5.25
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Keywords
- gender differences, temperament, effortful control, inhibitory control, perceptual sensitivity, surgency, negative affectivity, children, externalizing disorders, rough-and-tumble play, emotional reactivity
- MeSH terms
- Female, Humans, Male, Personality, Personality Development, Psychological Theory, Sex Factors, Temperament
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