Stability and change of personality across the life course: The impact of age and major life events on mean-level and rank-order stability of the Big Five.
Open accessAbstract
Does personality change across the entire life course, and are those changes due to intrinsic maturation or major life experiences? This longitudinal study investigated changes in the mean levels and rank order of the Big Five personality traits in a heterogeneous sample of 14,718 Germans across all of adulthood. Latent change and latent moderated regression models provided 4 main findings: First, age had a complex curvilinear influence on mean levels of personality. Second, the rank-order stability of Emotional Stability, Extraversion, Openness, and Agreeableness all followed an inverted U-shaped function, reaching a peak between the ages of 40 and 60 and decreasing afterward, whereas Conscientiousness showed a continuously increasing rank-order stability across adulthood. Third, personality predicted the occurrence of several objective major life events (selection effects) and changed in reaction to experiencing these events (socialization effects), suggesting that personality can change due to factors other than intrinsic maturation. Fourth, when events were clustered according to their valence, as is commonly done, effects of the environment on changes in personality were either overlooked or overgeneralized. In sum, our analyses show that personality changes throughout the life span, but with more pronounced changes in young and old ages, and that this change is partly attributable to social demands and experiences.
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In Specht et al. (2011), among participants who experienced the death of a spouse (N = 228), women showed an increase in conscientiousness.
“They found that of those participants who were faced with the death of a spouse ( N = 228), women showed an increase in conscientiousness”
From Life Events and Personality Trait Change. (2018) · cites this paper as Specht et al. (2011)
The Mean-Level Changes passage reports the opposite direction for women following the death of a spouse: their conscientiousness decreased (b = −.171, p = .03). It reports an increase for men instead (b = .253, p = .03). No page number is provided for the passage. (LLM, conf=0.95)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn Specht et al. (2011), among participants who experienced the death of a spouse (N = 228), men showed a decrease in conscientiousness (r ~ .20).
“whereas men showed a decrease in”
From Life Events and Personality Trait Change. (2018) · cites this paper as Specht et al. (2011)
The Mean-Level Changes section reports the opposite direction for men after the death of a spouse: men became more conscientious, while women decreased in conscientiousness. The cited passage reports coefficients (b), not the claimed r value; no page number is supplied in the copy. (LLM, conf=0.95)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn Specht et al. (2011), neuroticism was largely unaffected by the experience of any of the life events.
“In contrast, neuroticism was largely unaffected by the experience of any of the life events in this study.”
From Life Events and Personality Trait Change. (2018) · cites this paper as Specht et al., 2011
The Mean-Level Changes section reports no significant overall Emotional Stability effect among the listed event-related changes, supporting the claim’s general thrust. But it also reports that women became significantly more emotionally stable after moving out of the parental home, so the claim does not hold for every life event and group studied. Our copy provides no page number for these passages. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn Specht et al. (2011), effect sizes were small (r < .20) and researchers did not distinguish between first and later marriages.
“However, the effect sizes were small ( r < .20) and the researchers did not distinguish between first and later marriages.”
From Life Events and Personality Trait Change. (2018) · cites this paper as Specht et al., 2011
The marriage effects reported in Table 4 are small in magnitude, but they are labeled b coefficients, not correlations (r). More importantly, the Measures section says the researchers separately investigated first marriages and marriage in general, although they reported only the general-event results because the effects were largely the same. Thus the claim that they did not distinguish first from later marriages is contradicted by our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSpecht et al. (2011) found that both men and women who got divorced became more agreeable and conscientious across the 4-year research period (r < .20).
“The results indicated that both men and women who got divorced (N = 229) became more agreeable and conscientious across the 4-year research period ( r < .20).”
From Life Events and Personality Trait Change. (2018) · cites this paper as Specht et al., 2011
Table 1 lists 229 participants who divorced, including men and women, and Table 4 reports positive divorce-related changes in agreeableness (b = .187) and conscientiousness (b = .249) over the study period. The paper does not report those changes separately for men and women, and the cited effect-size notation is inaccurate: these are b coefficients, not r values, and .249 exceeds .20. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.89)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Specht et al. (2011) found that young adults who enter the labor market for the first time (N = 456) show considerable increases in conscientiousness over a period of 4 years (r ~ 0.20).
“Specht et al. (2011) found that young adults who enter the labor market for the first time (N = 456) show considerable increases in conscientiousness over a period of 4 years ( r ~ 0.20).”
From Life Events and Personality Trait Change. (2018) · cites this paper as Specht et al. (2011)
Table 1 lists 456 people starting their first job, with a mean age of 21.18. The Mean-Level Changes section reports that their conscientiousness increased considerably over the four-year study, but gives the effect as b = .194, not a correlation of r ≈ .20. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn Specht et al. (2011), individuals who retired during the 4-year follow-up period showed significant decreases in conscientiousness (r ~ -.20).
“individuals who retired during the 4-year follow-up period showed significant decreases in conscientiousness ( r ~-.20).”
From Life Events and Personality Trait Change. (2018) · cites this paper as Specht et al. (2011)
The Mean-Level Changes section reports that participants who retired became significantly less conscientious over the four-year period. It gives the effect as b = −.169 (p = .002), however, not as a correlation of r ≈ −.20; the direction and significance are supported, but the reported statistic is not. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSpecht et al. (2011) found no change in agreeableness or extraversion, but significant changes in conscientiousness in retirement.
“Specht et al. (2011) found no change in agreeableness or extraversion, but significant changes in conscientiousness.”
From Life Events and Personality Trait Change. (2018) · cites this paper as Specht et al. (2011)
The Mean-Level Changes section (page unavailable) reports a significant decrease in conscientiousness after retirement (b = −.169, p = .002). It does not establish that agreeableness or extraversion did not change in retirement; it only omits them from its list of significant event-related effects. Read as a general claim rather than a retirement-specific one, the sentence also conflicts with the paper’s reported changes in both traits across the lifespan. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSpecht et al. (2011) found that both men and women tended to decrease in conscientiousness after the birth of a child.
“Specht et al. (2011) found that both men and women tended to decrease in conscientiousness after the birth of a child.”
From Life Events and Personality Trait Change. (2018) · cites this paper as Specht et al. (2011)
Specht et al. (2011) found that life events can lead to changes in personality traits but that the effects varied considerably between life events and personality traits.
“This study showed that life events can lead to changes in personality traits but also that the effects varied considerably between both life events and personality traits.”
From Life Events and Personality Trait Change. (2018) · cites this paper as Specht, Schmuckle, & Egloff, 2011
In Specht et al. (2011), conscientiousness was most responsive to major life events including divorce, retirement, or the birth of the first child.
“For instance, conscientiousness was most responsive to major life events including divorce, retirement, or the birth of the first child.”
From Life Events and Personality Trait Change. (2018) · cites this paper as Specht et al., 2011
Specht et al. (2011) found that individuals who got married tended to show more pronounced decreases in extraversion and openness to experience compared to participants who did not get married.
“They found that individuals who got married tended to show more pronounced decreases in extraversion and openness to experience as compared to the participants who did not get married.”
From Life Events and Personality Trait Change. (2018) · cites this paper as Specht et al., 2011
In Specht et al. (2011), there were no effects of entering the labor market on any of the other four Big Five traits.
“There were no effects on any of the other four Big Five traits.”
From Life Events and Personality Trait Change. (2018) · cites this paper as Specht et al. (2011)
Specht et al. (2011) found no differences in Big Five trait changes between participants who experienced unemployment (N = 860) and those who did not report having experienced a period of unemployment.
“Using the representative SOEP sample, Specht et al. (2011) found no differences in Big Five trait changes between participants who experienced unemployment ( N = 860) and those who did not report having experienced a period of unemployment.”
From Life Events and Personality Trait Change. (2018) · cites this paper as Specht et al. (2011)
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- Authors
- Specht, J., Egloff, B., & Schmukle, S. C.
- Affiliations
- University of Münster (DE)
- Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz (DE)
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 2011
- Volume
- 101
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 862-882
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W1528286763
- Cited by
- 1,318
- References
- 11
- Citations by year
- 2026: 38 · 2025: 51 · 2024: 65 · 2023: 89 · 2022: 102 · 2021: 108 · 2020: 195 · 2019: 94 · 2018: 128 · 2017: 103 · 2016: 85 · 2015: 82 · 2014: 87 · 2013: 56 · 2012: 30
- FWCI
- 61.30
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- SSRN Electronic Journal (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- SOEPpapers on Multidisciplinary Panel Data Research (submittedVersion)
- Econstor (Econstor) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- German National Academic Foundation
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Disorders and Psychopathology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Keywords
- personality change, life course, Big Five personality traits, rank-order stability, major life events, age effects, emotional stability, conscientiousness, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, selection effects, socialization effects, lifespan development
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Affect, Age Factors, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Emotions, Female, Germany, Humans, Internal-External Control, Interpersonal Relations, Life Change Events, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, Personality, Personality Development, Personality Inventory, Social Environment, Social Perception, Young Adult
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