Post‐traumatic growth as positive personality change: Challenges, opportunities, and recommendations

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The proliferation of cross-sectional studies using retrospective assessment tools is understandable given the challenges of studying life events.

“Given the challenges associated with studying the impact of life events, it is understandable that there were a proliferation of cross-sectional studies using retrospective assessment tools (such as the Post-Traumatic Growth Inventory [PTGI]; Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1996) to assess self-perceived growth.”

• cites Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1996Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Timing of data collection is complicated because many life events are unpredictable and involve sequences of minor events.

“Second, the timing of data collection is complicated by the fact that many life events are not predictable and are not restricted to one specific moment in time but rather involve a sequence of multiple minor events.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

There are individual differences in the rate of change in an outcome after an event.

“There are also individual differences in the rate of change in an outcome after the event.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Other characteristics of an event besides its stress level may be important for growth.

“it is possible that other characteristics of the event than the level of stress itself are important.”

• cites Luhmann et al., in pressNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Not everyone is equally prone to experience certain life events, and individual differences may affect both the experience of events and their outcomes.

“Third, not everyone is equally prone to experience certain life events, such that individual differences may impact both the experience of events and the outcomes of those events (Hammen, 1991, 2006; see also Rakhshani & Furr, this issue).”

• cites Hammen, 1991, 2006Not checked yet

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• cites Rakhshani & Furr, this issueNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Post-traumatic growth can be more accurately captured as personality change, and this approach allows more rigorous examination.

“we propose that posttraumatic growth can be more accurately captured in terms of personality change—an approach that affords a more rigorous examination of the phenomenon.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Adopting a personality framework allows examination of whether changes in life narratives or momentary manifestations following adversity lead to changes in specific personality traits.

“adopting a personality framework allows us to examine whether changes in people’s life narratives or changes in momentary manifestations of thoughts, feelings and behavior following the experience of adversity leads to changes in specific personality traits (Infurna & Jayawickreme, 2019).”

• cites Infurna & Jayawickreme, 2019Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Many life events are relatively rare and therefore require large populations to ensure sufficient statistical power.

“First, many life events (e.g., clinical traumas) are relatively rare and therefore require access to a sufficiently large population to ensure that the sample is large enough to provide enough statistical power.”

May combine two claims.

Participants in retrospective PTG studies may misremember their prior state, be influenced by social desirability, or be motivated to perceive growth that did not occur.

“participants may misremember their prior state, be influenced by social desirability pressures resulting from the cultural narrative, or they may be motivated to perceive growth where it has not occurred (Tennen & Affleck, 2009; see also Davis et al., this issue).”

• cites Tennen & Affleck, 2009Not checked yet

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• cites Davis et al., this issueNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Perceptions of PTG may lead to changes in narrative identity, which may in turn predict health and well-being benefits.

“it is possible that people’s perceptions of PTG may result in changes to how they subsequently narrate their life stories, and such changes in narrative identity may consequentially predict tangible health and well-being benefits (Adler, Lodi-Smith, Philippe, & Houle, 2016).”

• cites Adler, Lodi-Smith, Philippe, & Houle, 2016Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Life events are sometimes weighted by their assumed impact before computing an overall score.

“To account for this problem, life events are sometimes weighted by their assumed impact (Holmes & Rahe, 1967; de Moor, Hutteman, Korrelboom, & Laceulle, 2019) before computing the overall score.”

• cites Holmes & Rahe, 1967Not checked yet

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• cites de Moor, Hutteman, Korrelboom, & Laceulle, 2019Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

It remains unclear what types of major life events lead to growth and which key event characteristics instigate growth.

“It remains unclear what types of major life events lead to growth, and which key event characteristics instigate growth (Mangelsdorf et al., 2019),”

• cites Mangelsdorf et al., 2019Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Semi-structured interviews are time-consuming and therefore rarely implemented.

“However, this method is time-consuming and therefore rarely implemented.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

If researchers carefully select dimensions, those dimensions would presumably include important features of traumatic events.

“If researchers carefully select those dimensions, then presumably these dimensions would include the important features of traumatic events.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

It is unclear whether the checklist approach to assessing life events is sufficient to understand the event's impact.

“as well as whether the currently ubiquitous checklist approach to assessing life events is sufficient to understand the event’s impact.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Many previous longitudinal studies have used life-events checklists to measure whether and how often specific life events occur in a timeframe.

“Many previous longitudinal studies have used life-events checklists (Holmes & Rahe, 1967; Turner & Wheaton, 1997) to measure whether and how often specific life events occur in a specific timeframe.”

• cites Holmes & Rahe, 1967Not checked yet

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• cites Turner & Wheaton, 1997Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Continued use of the PTGI is not justified given soundly noted concerns about its limitations.

“However, this does not justify its continued use when concerns about the limitations of the PTGI have been soundly noted (see Jayawickreme & Blackie, 2014; Tennen & Affleck, 2009).”

• cites Jayawickreme & Blackie, 2014Not checked yet

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• cites Tennen & Affleck, 2009Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Plasticity traits may be involved in both positive and negative changes and may be most sensitive to changes following life events.

“Notably, plasticity traits may be involved in both positive and negative changes (e.g., Lüdtke, Roberts, Trautwein, & Nagy, 2011)—in other words, these traits may be most sensitive to positive or negative changes following the experience of life events.”

• cites Lüdtke, Roberts, Trautwein, & Nagy, 2011Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Agreeableness, conscientiousness, extraversion, and emotional stability decrease in old age.

“while levels of agreeableness, conscientiousness, extraversion and emotional stability decrease in old age (Bleidorn & Hopwood, 2019).”

• cites Bleidorn & Hopwood, 2019Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Multi-event studies using checklists may be appropriate if researchers ensure the checklists are appropriate for the target sample.

“Whereas multi-event studies measuring life events with checklists may be appropriate if researchers are careful to ensure that such checklists are appropriate for the target sample,”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

A foundational rationale for examining specific life events is that they can lead to disruptions in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that can ultimately lead to growth.

“This is because a foundational rationale for examining specific life events (e.g., traumatic life events according to PTG theories) is that they can lead to disruptions in a person’s thoughts, feelings and behaviors that can ultimately lead to growth.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Adverse or traumatic life events can lead to disruptions in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that can ultimately lead to growth.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Longitudinal panel surveys have been used to examine change following a specific adverse life event.

“Longitudinal panel surveys, such as the German Socioeconomic Panel Study and the Health and Retirement Study, have been used in this way to examine change following a specific adverse life event.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

A cancer diagnosis comes with unique challenges and opportunities for growth not present for other life events.

“For example, a cancer diagnosis comes with unique challenges and opportunities for growth that are not present for other life events and that can be discovered only in a study focused on this particular event.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Self-reports of life events may be inaccurate in various ways.

“Like the checklist approach, these self-reports may be inaccurate in various ways.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Many studies count the number of checked life events to obtain an overall life stress score.

“Many studies simply count the number of checked life events to obtain an overall life stress score.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Multi-event studies were traditionally popular because checklists resolved the problem that many life events are rare.

“Such multi-event studies were traditionally popular because checklists resolved the problem that many life events are rare.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Assessing multiple perceived characteristics of events can be useful for addressing shortcomings of checklist-based studies.

“Assessing multiple perceived characteristics (e.g., Luhmann et al., 2020) can be particularly useful for addressing some of the shortcomings of checklist-based studies.”

• cites Luhmann et al., 2020Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Some research indicates adaptive changes for other Big Five traits following adversity, but results are not consistent across studies.

“Although shifts toward greater neuroticism are typically considered maladaptive, some research has also indicated adaptive changes for other Big Five traits (see below), though the results (unlike those pertaining to neuroticism) have not been consistent across studies (Bleidorn et al., 2018; Costa, McCrae, & Löckenhoff, 2019).”

• cites Bleidorn et al., 2018Not checked yet

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• cites Costa, McCrae, & Löckenhoff, 2019Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

In count and weighted approaches, it may not be possible to bypass the unique challenges and opportunities for growth associated with each event.

“In these two approaches, however, it may not be possible to bypass the unique challenges and opportunities for growth associated with each event.”

May combine two claims.

On average, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness decline from late childhood to early adolescence, then increase from late adolescence to early adulthood.

“Multiple cross-sectional and longitudinal studies have found that on average, people’s levels of agreeableness, conscientiousness and openness to experience decline from late childhood to early adolescence, then increase again from late adolescence to early adulthood.”

• cites Bleidorn & Hopwood, 2019Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In a large German Socio-Economic Panel sample, negative events were associated with increases in openness for men but not for women.

“For example, in a large sample from the German Socio-Economic Panel, negative events were associated with increases in openness for men, but not for women (Specht, Egloff, & Schmukle, 2011).”

• cites Specht, Egloff, & Schmukle, 2011Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Trait changes observed in those affected by adversity may be caused either by normative changes or by the adverse event itself.

“This is especially important given that trait changes observed in those affected by adversity may be caused either by normative changes that would have occurred regardless of the adverse event or by the adverse event itself (Anusic & Yap, 2014).”

• cites Anusic & Yap, 2014Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Adverse experiences during adolescence predicted decreases in agreeableness and conscientiousness from childhood to adulthood only if the adversity was dependent on the person's own behaviors.

“For example, one study found that adverse experiences during adolescence predicted decreases in both agreeableness and conscientiousness from childhood to adulthood, but only if the adversity likely arose as a result of the person’s own behaviors (“dependent adversity”; Shiner et al., 2017).”

• cites Shiner et al., 2017Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The PTGI assesses participants once after adversity and has been used to assess changes in response to events occurring 3 to 12 months or longer before assessment.

“The PTGI required assessing participants once after the adversity occurred. Empirical studies have used the PTGI to assess changes in response to events that occurred anywhere from 3 to 12 months or even longer before the assessment (Helgeson, Reynolds, & Tomich, 2006).”

• cites Helgeson, Reynolds, & Tomich, 2006Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Personality change in narrative identity can occur, and such changes may facilitate greater adjustment and well-being.

“Thus, demonstrating that personality change in the form of narrative identity can occur, and these changes may facilitate greater adjustment and well-being.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Changes following adversity may be found in personality characteristics beyond the Big Five.

“More broadly, it may be that changes following adversity may be found in other personality characteristics beyond that of the Big Five.”

May combine two claims.

When revising life stories, individuals interpret past events in relation to current and future self-conceptions and use meaning from past experiences to narrate who they were, are, and wish to be.

“When revising life stories in light of new events and experiences, individuals interpret past events in relation to current and future conceptions of the self, and use the meaning from past experiences to narrate who they were, are and wish to be (Pasupathi et al., 2007).”

• cites Pasupathi et al., 2007Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A study examining cohorts across 24 character strengths suggested those assessed after 9/11 reported higher levels of gratitude, hope, kindness, leadership, love, spirituality, and teamwork.

“One study conducted both before and after 9/11 by examining cohorts of individuals across 24 character strengths suggested those who were assessed after 9/11 reported higher levels of self-reported gratitude, hope, kindness, leadership, love, spirituality, and teamwork (Peterson & Seligman, 2003).”

• cites Peterson & Seligman, 2003Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Contradictory previous findings suggest more research is needed to determine the conditions under which traits may change and in which direction following adverse events.

“Altogether, the contradictory nature of previous findings in this area suggests that more research is needed to determine the conditions under which any of these traits may change (and in which direction) following adverse events.”

May combine two claims.

Rare longitudinal studies examining character strengths in the context of adversity have found mixed results and mostly small effects.

“The rare longitudinal studies examining character strengths in the context of adversity have found mixed results and mostly small effects.”

May combine two claims.

Self-narratives reveal the significance attached to life experiences and individual differences in interpreting those experiences within one's life.

“The stories people tell about themselves can show the significance attached to certain life experiences and can also illuminate individual differences in the interpretations of such experiences in the context of one’s life (e.g., Adler et al., this issue; McAdams & McLean, 2013).”

• cites Adler et al., this issueNot checked yet

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• cites McAdams & McLean, 2013Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Narrative construction and interpretation is central to narrative identity and is considered critical to self-understanding and a potential mechanism for growth and development.

“This notion of narrative construction and interpretation is central to the study of narrative identity and is understood to be critical to how one understands the self, as well as a potential mechanism for growth and development (e.g., McAdams & Olson, 2010; see also Adler, 2012).”

• cites McAdams & Olson, 2010Not checked yet

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• cites Adler, 2012Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Increased prosocial behavior following adversity is a type of growth known as altruism born of suffering.

“One intriguing area of research is the growing literature on increased prosocial behavior following adversity, a type of growth known as “altruism born of suffering” (Frazier et al., 2013; Staub & Vollhardt, 2008; Vollhardt, 2009).”

• cites Frazier et al., 2013Not checked yet

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• cites Staub & Vollhardt, 2008Not checked yet

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• cites Vollhardt, 2009Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Adler (2012) found increases in agency themes in psychotherapy narratives, and these increases predicted changes in mental health symptoms over 12 sessions.

“Adler (2012), for example, found increases in themes of agency in individuals’ narratives of their experiences of psychotherapy, and these increases in agency predicted changes in mental health symptoms over the course of 12 sessions.”

• cites Adler, 2012Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Highly central negative events predicted small increases in conscientiousness in addition to openness.

“In contrast, the experience of highly-central negative events predicted small increases in conscientiousness (in addition to openness; Boals et al., 2015).”

• cites Boals et al., 2015Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Across several large samples, well-being was associated with increased gratitude, and this association remained stable at different periods in the life course.

“For example, across several large samples, well-being was associated with increased gratitude, and this association remained stable at different periods in the life course (Chopik, Newton, Ryan, & Kashdan, 2017).”

• cites Chopik, Newton, Ryan, & Kashdan, 2017Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Although mean-level change in personality traits or character strengths shows little change, there are likely individual differences in the extent to which adversity impacts outcomes.

“Although the findings pertaining to mean-level change in personality traits or character strengths show little change, there are likely to be individual differences in the extent to which adversity impacts the outcomes of interest.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Altruism born of suffering may relate to higher engagement at work.

“and may also relate to higher engagement at work (Eskreis-Winkler, Shulman, & Duckworth, 2014).”

• cites Eskreis-Winkler, Shulman, & Duckworth, 2014Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Adversity may lead to growth for some people and decrements for others, pointing to the importance of research on moderators of change.

“In other words, adversity may lead to growth for some people and may even lead to decrements for others, pointing to the importance of research on moderators of change.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Extreme adversity in an urban context predicted decreases in the compliance facet of agreeableness.

“Similarly, the experience of extreme adversity in an urban context predicted decreases in the compliance facet of agreeableness (Löckenhoff et al., 2009).”

• cites Löckenhoff et al., 2009Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Prospective longitudinal research on the development of specific moral personality traits or character strengths is rare, with most studies relying on cross-sectional data.

“Prospective longitudinal research on the development of specific moral personality traits (or character strengths) is rare, with most studies relying on cross-sectional data (e.g., Peterson, Park, Pole, D’Andrea, & Seligman, 2008).”

• cites Peterson, Park, Pole, D’Andrea, & Seligman, 2008Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In narrative identity research, the target of investigation is subjective interpretation in narration, not the occurrence of the event.

“On this account, it is not the occurrence of the event that is the target of investigation, but rather the subjective interpretation revealed in a person’s narration.”

May combine two claims.

A self-distanced perspective on adversity can promote a bigger-picture view, open-mindedness, awareness that life circumstances change, and acknowledgment of other perspectives.

“A self-distanced perspective on adversity can promote a bigger picture view of an event and enhance open-mindedness, the realization that life circumstances are constantly changing, and acknowledgment of other perspectives (Grossmann & Kross, 2014; Kross & Grossmann, 2012).”

• cites Grossmann & Kross, 2014Not checked yet

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• cites Kross & Grossmann, 2012Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Altruism born of suffering may be explained by greater empathy and compassion.

“may be explained by greater empathy and compassion (Lim & DeSteno, 2016),”

• cites Lim & DeSteno, 2016Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Learning is core to personality change in various clinical conceptualizations and is the basis of developmental change in normal traits in Whole Trait Theory.

“The idea that learning is core to how personality changes has been inherent in various clinical conceptualizations from Dollard and Miller to Rogers to Beck (among others) and is the basis of developmental change in normal personality traits for at least one modern theory of traits (Whole Trait Theory, Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015).”

• cites Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Reflection on adverse experiences leads to and prolongs depressive symptoms among American samples, but this effect is less pronounced among Eastern European, Asian American, and Japanese samples.

“For example, whereas reflection on adverse experiences lead to and prolong depressive symptoms among American samples (King et al., 2000), this effect is less pronounced among Eastern European (Grossmann & Kross, 2010), Asian American (Chang, Tsai, & Sanna, 2010) and Japanese samples (Taku, Cann, Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2009).”

• cites King et al., 2000Not checked yet

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• cites Grossmann & Kross, 2010Not checked yet

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• cites Chang, Tsai, & Sanna, 2010Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Prevailing PTG theories imply worldview changes precede behavior changes.

“Prevailing theories of PTG imply that individuals first experiences changes in worldview, which then lead them to change their behavior (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004).”

• cites Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

In some cases, an adverse event first changes context, reinforcers, and behavior-outcome contingencies, leading to behavior change, which may later lead to worldview changes as individuals make sense of new habits.

“It may be that, in some cases, an adverse event first changes an individual’s context, available reinforcers, and contingencies between behaviors and outcomes, which subsequent leads to behavior change. Such environmental and behavioral changes may lead to later changes in perspective/worldview as individuals make sense of their new habits.”

May combine two claims.

Social position variables help define bounded group-communities, influence types of exposures those communities have, and shape their desired competencies.

“Thus, theses social position variables both help to define bounded group-communities, to influence the types of exposures those communities have (e.g., to adversity, to different traumas), and to shape their desired competencies (e.g., character strengths).”

May combine two claims.

These results align with PTG research and explain why reports of positive changes after trauma are common.

“These results align with the research on PTG and provide an explanation for why reports of positive changes after trauma are common (Joseph & Linley, 2008).”

• cites Joseph & Linley, 2008Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Narration of difficult and traumatic past events depends not only on individual differences; narrative reconstruction occurs in a social context.

“Narration of difficult and traumatic past events does not only depend on individual differences. The narrative reconstructive and interpretative process occurs in a social context (e.g., McAdams, 2006; Nelson & Fivush, 2004).”

• cites McAdams, 2006Not checked yet

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• cites Nelson & Fivush, 2004Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Types of adversities, notions of competence, and mechanisms of growth may depend on the specific bounded group-community, and extending PTG research to more diverse populations depends on definitions of adversity, trauma, character, and growth in those communities.

“In this way, the types of adversities encountered, the notions of competence, and the mechanisms of growth – all key features of PTG – may depend on the specific bounded group-community under investigation and extending PTG research to more diverse populations and setting will depend upon definitions of adversity, trauma, character, and growth in those”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Psychological notions about adversity, growth, and growing in response to adversity should be defined within a given bounded group-community.

May combine two claims.

The master narrative can be harmful for people whose stories deviate from it; divergence from socially acceptable recovery strategies may lead to poorer adjustment.

“However, this master narrative has the potential to be harmful for the people whose stories deviate from it. People whose stories are not aligned with the master narrative of redemption in their culture may diverge from socially acceptable strategies to recover from trauma, which could lead to poorer adjustment (Infurna, 2020; Delker, Salton, McLean, & Syed, 2020; McLean et al, 2020).”

• cites Infurna, 2020 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Delker, Salton, McLean, & Syed, 2020Not checked yet

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• cites McLean et al, 2020Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

People who narrate adversity in line with this master narrative may report higher well-being than those who do not, and are perceived by others as healthier, more likeable, and having more desirable traits.

“People who tell their stories of adversity in line with this master narrative may therefore report higher levels of well-being than those who do not narrate their experiences through this cultural lens (e.g., McAdams, Reynolds, Lewis, Patten, & Bowman, 2001), and are also perceived by others to be healthier, more likeable, and to have more desirable traits (McLean, Delker, Dunloip, Salton, & Syed,”

• cites McAdams, Reynolds, Lewis, Patten, & Bowman, 2001Not checked yet

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• cites McLean, Delker, Dunloip, Salton, & Syed, 2020Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Accumulation of novel experiences or circumstances with perceived efficacy and control could lead to fundamental positive personality changes.

“Yet, in the same way that repeated experiences with uncontrollable aversive outcomes across a variety of contexts lead to increases in neuroticism and lowered well-being (Maier & Seligman, 2016), it is not difficult to imagine how accumulation of novel experiences or circumstances in which one perceives a level of efficacy and control could lead to fundamental positive changes in personality.”

• cites Maier & Seligman, 2016Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Many social contexts, including the U.S., use social position variables such as race, ethnicity, gender, sexuality, ability, citizenship, and social class to stratify individuals into social hierarchies.

“Many social contexts, including the U.S., rely upon social position variables – like race, ethnicity, gender, sexuality, ability, citizenship, and social class - to stratify individuals into existing social hierarchies (García Coll et al., 1996).”

• cites García Coll et al., 1996Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Individuals may give socially desirable responses on growth assessments to align with the master narrative, which may uphold and further instantiate that narrative.

“Individuals may also provide socially desirable responses to assessments of growth in order to align their experience with the master narrative (Salsman, Segerstrom, Brechting, Carlson, & Andrykowski 2009; Zoellner & Maercker, 2006), which may also have the consequence of upholding, and further instantiating, the master narrative to which people are responding (McLean & Syed, 2015).”

• cites Salsman, Segerstrom, Brechting, Carlson, & Andrykowski 2009Not checked yet

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• cites Zoellner & Maercker, 2006Not checked yet

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• cites McLean & Syed, 2015Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The idea that suffering makes one stronger has become influential in Western culture and may represent a master narrative structure prescribing learning and growth from suffering as adaptive recovery.

“The notion of ‘what does not kill you makes you stronger’ invoked at the beginning of the paper has become influential in Western culture and therefore may actually represent a master narrative structure, outlining that the adaptive and socially acceptable way to recover from adversity involves learning and growing from one’s suffering (McAdams, 2006).”

• cites McAdams, 2006Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Secondary data are becoming increasingly accessible and convenient for researchers.

“Secondary data are also becoming increasingly more accessible and convenient for researchers to use, with minimal barriers preventing researchers from answering research questions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Jager et al. effectively move the question away from a comparison between convenience samples versus probability samples and toward a hard look at which types of convenience samples are likely to produce more accurate estimates of the association between trauma/adversity and positive personality change.

“Jager et al. effectively move the question away from a comparison between convenience samples versus probability samples (the latter of which have low feasibility in PTG research) and toward a hard look at which types of convenience samples are likely to produce more accurate estimates of the association between trauma/adversity and positive personality change.”

• cites Jager et al., 2017Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Recently, researchers have been making use of Bayesian statistics for small samples such as the ones described here, referred to as limited data situations.

“Recently, researchers have been making use of Bayesian statistics for small samples such as the ones described here, referred to as limited data situations (van de Schoot, Sijbrandij, Depaoli, Winter, Olff, & Loey, 2018).”

• cites van de Schoot, Sijbrandij, Depaoli, Winter, Olff, & Loey, 2018Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Bayesian statistics require background information via previous literature or expert knowledge.

“This direction may be promising for researchers who wish to examine PTG longitudinally, although it is important to note that background information via previous literature or expert knowledge is necessary when conducting Bayesian statistics.”

• cites van de Schoot, Sijbrandij, Depaoli, Winter, Olff, & Loey, 2018Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The measures the researcher planned to use may not make sense to the participants or turn out to not be valid or reliable in the specific sample.

“Alternatively, the measures the researcher planned to use may not make sense to the participants or turn out to not be valid or reliable in the specific sample (Knight, Roosa, & Umaña-Taylor, 2009).”

• cites Knight, Roosa, & Umaña-Taylor, 2009Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Many unanswered questions remain about the ubiquity, durability and causal processes underlying PTG.

“This means that many unanswered questions remain about the ubiquity, durability and causal processes underlying PTG (Jayawickreme & Blackie, 2014).”

• cites Jayawickreme & Blackie, 2014Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Research with specific groups contributes to an understanding of the potential for growth following adversity by advancing specificity relative to the range and types of adversity exposures, the domains of growth, and the specific mechanisms that might facilitate growth following adversity.

“Research with specific groups contributes to an understanding of the potential for growth following adversity by advancing specificity relative to the range and types of adversity exposures, the domains of growth (e.g., spirituality, altruism, and solidarity), and the specific mechanisms that might facilitate growth following adversity.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Younger age at spousal loss is associated with a stronger decline in life satisfaction at the time of spousal loss, but stronger improvements in the years thereafter.

“Younger age at spousal loss was associated with a stronger decline in life satisfaction at the time of spousal loss, but stronger improvements in the years thereafter.”

• cites Infurna and colleagues (2017)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Changes in life satisfaction in groups who experienced marriage, childbirth, unemployment, and widowhood were distinct from those in control groups, suggesting that the adversity was a causal force in predicting changes in life satisfaction.

“They observed that changes in the groups who experienced these events were distinct from those in the control groups, suggesting that the adversity was a causal force in predicting changes in life satisfaction.”

• cites Anusic and colleagues (2014)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

A strong study of personality change following adversity would have longitudinal data, multiple pre- and post-adversity assessments, detailed adversity information, and a large enough sample to detect moderate or small changes.

“Any strong study investigating personality change following adversity would have a few basic elements: longitudinal data, a number of assessments prior to and following the adversity, detailed information about the adversity, and a large enough sample to detect moderate or small changes (or at least stable individual differences) in personality (Luhmann et al., 2014).”

• cites Luhmann et al., 2014Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Optimism was relatively unaffected by adverse events but increased in response to positive life events in California Families Project data.

“For example, optimism was found to be relatively unaffected by adverse events but increased in response to positive life events in data from the California Families Project (Schwaba et al., 2019).”

• cites Schwaba et al., 2019Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Researchers are often only provided with broad measures of traditional trait taxonomies such as the Big Five, missing measures of constructs implicated in adversity and growth such as humility and open-mindedness.

“Likewise, researchers are often only provided with broad measures of more traditional taxonomies of traits (e.g., the Big Five personality traits). Missing are measures of constructs more closely implicated in adversity and growth (e.g., humility, open-mindedness).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The specific adversity exposures, growth competencies, and mechanisms are likely to vary across populations and niches.

“Here, researchers interested in PTG are invited to consider expanding the search for replication from exact replication to broader conceptual replications, as the specific adversity exposures, growth competencies, and mechanisms are likely to vary across populations and niches.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Social participation and better health status of the individual are associated with better adaptation in the years following spousal loss.

“Furthermore, social participation and better health status of the individual were associated with better adaptation in the years following spousal loss.”

• cites Infurna and colleagues (2017)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Qualitative methodology may be particularly suited for research conducted on specific samples, especially when the research question is being asked for the first time within the population.

“Qualitative methodology may be particularly suited for research conducted on specific samples, especially when the research question is being asked for the first time within the population.”

May combine two claims.

Best evidence to date indicates positive personality change following adverse events can be quite difficult to find, suggesting such changes are quite rare.

“However, they are also the best evidence to date (in addition to the articles in this special issue) that positive personality change following adverse events can be quite difficult to find, suggesting that such changes are quite rare (see the review above).”

May combine two claims.

This phenomenon may be dominated by interaction rather than main effects, and detecting such effects may be limited even in largest studies.

“In other words, this phenomenon may be dominated by interaction rather than main effects, and the ability to detect such effects may be limited, even in the largest available studies.”

May combine two claims.

Research findings for specific samples and communities may not be similarly 'bounded' and therefore may not replicate across different contexts.

“One important implication of considering the importance of context and differences in environments for PTG is that research findings for specific samples and communities may not be similarly “bounded” and therefore may not replicate across different contexts.”

May combine two claims.

Most existing trait measures were developed assuming personality is stable, and their wording may pull for responses emphasizing stability.

“Most existing measures of traits were developed under the assumption that personality is stable over time, and the wording of such measures may pull for responses that emphasize stability.”

May combine two claims.

In resilience research using growth mixture modeling, resilience was not the common trajectory in response to adversity; instead, a recovery trajectory characterized by a decline at the time of the adversity, followed by gradual improvements to near-previous levels over time, was far more common.

“Infurna and Luthar (2018) systematically determined that in resilience research using growth mixture modeling, resilience was not the common trajectory in response to adversity; instead, a recovery trajectory characterized by a decline at the time of the adversity, followed by gradual improvements to near-previous levels over time, was far more common.”

• cites Infurna and Luthar (2018)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Some individuals may experience growth very quickly after an event; for others growth may be delayed until after processing or intervening events.

“In other words, some individuals who experience growth may do so very quickly following the event. For others, the growth may be delayed, occurring only after the individual has had time to process the event or to experience intervening events that shape his or her understanding of the event itself.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In qualitative research, the focus is not so much on sample size, but on sampling adequacy, such that enough depth and breadth of information about the target construct and individual is obtained.

“In qualitative research, the focus is not so much on sample size, but on sampling adequacy, such that enough depth and breadth of information about the target construct and individual is obtained (O’Reilly & Parker, 2012).”

• cites O’Reilly & Parker, 2012Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.