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Gender stereotypes have changed: A cross-temporal meta-analysis of U.S. public opinion polls from 1946 to 2018.
Abstract
This meta-analysis integrated 16 nationally representative U.S. public opinion polls on gender stereotypes (N = 30,093 adults), extending from 1946 to 2018, a span of seven decades that brought considerable change in gender relations, especially in women's roles. In polls inquiring about communion (e.g., affectionate, emotional), agency (e.g., ambitious, courageous), and competence (e.g., intelligent, creative), respondents indicated whether each trait is more true of women or men, or equally true of both. Women's relative advantage in communion increased over time, but men's relative advantage in agency showed no change. Belief in competence equality increased over time, along with belief in female superiority among those who indicated a sex difference in competence. Contemporary gender stereotypes thus convey substantial female advantage in communion and a smaller male advantage in agency but also gender equality in competence along with some female advantage. Interpretation emphasizes the origins of gender stereotypes in the social roles of women and men. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
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“These differences may be attributed to societal processes and organizational norms that assign women to tasks more highly associated with communion (i.e., teaching and service) and men to tasks more highly associated with agency (i.e., research) (e.g., Eagly et al., 2020).”
From Faculty Time Expenditure Across Research, Teaching, and Service: Do Gender Differences Persist? (2023) · cites this paper as Eagly et al., 2020
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Metadata
- Authors
- Eagly, A. H., Nater, C., Miller, D. I., Kaufmann, M., & Sczesny, S.
- Affiliations
- Northwestern University (US)
- University of Bern (CH)
- American Institutes for Research (US)
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 2020-04
- Volume
- 75
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 301-315
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W2961388998
- Cited by
- 1,136
- References
- 58
- Citations by year
- 2026: 175 · 2025: 201 · 2024: 205 · 2023: 175 · 2022: 180 · 2021: 121 · 2020: 63
- FWCI
- 19.90
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- BORIS (University Library Bern) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Swiss National Science Foundation (P0BEP1_162210)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender and Feminist Studies
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Media, Gender, and Advertising
- Keywords
- gender stereotypes, public opinion, cross-temporal change, gender roles, women's roles, gender equality, female superiority, competence, social roles, United States
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Public Opinion, Stereotyping, United States, History, 20th Century, History, 21st Century, Femininity, Masculinity
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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