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Gender stereotypes have changed: A cross-temporal meta-analysis of U.S. public opinion polls from 1946 to 2018.

Eagly, Alice H., Nater, Christa, Miller, David I., Kaufmann, Michèle, Sczesny, Sabine·2020·American Psychologist

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Abstract

This meta-analysis integrated 16 nationally representative U.S. public opinion polls on gender stereotypes (N = 30,093 adults), extending from 1946 to 2018, a span of seven decades that brought considerable change in gender relations, especially in women's roles. In polls inquiring about communion (e.g., affectionate, emotional), agency (e.g., ambitious, courageous), and competence (e.g., intelligent, creative), respondents indicated whether each trait is more true of women or men, or equally true of both. Women's relative advantage in communion increased over time, but men's relative advantage in agency showed no change. Belief in competence equality increased over time, along with belief in female superiority among those who indicated a sex difference in competence. Contemporary gender stereotypes thus convey substantial female advantage in communion and a smaller male advantage in agency but also gender equality in competence along with some female advantage. Interpretation emphasizes the origins of gender stereotypes in the social roles of women and men. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

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Louis, F. E., & Fuady, I. (2023) · Persepsi Communication Journal · doi:10.30596/persepsi.v6i2.15390 · Cited by 1
Autobiographical memory phenomenology in transgender and cisgender individuals
Grysman, A., Schlaupitz, C. A., Bohanek, J. G., & Lukowski, A. F. (2024) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2024.2387106 · Cited by 1
“The process of transitioning poses many potential challenges, including social isolation, loss of relationships, and continued navigation of a society that, in many ways, retains an essentialist approach to gender (Eagly et al., 2020; Martin & Slepian, 2020).”
Gender Differences in Personality: An Item-Level Analysis
Smith, C. C. (2020) · CUNY Academic Works (City University of New York) · Cited by 1
Does Industry Gender Composition Influence CEO Compensation
Rahimi, S. (2020) · Spectrum Research Repository (Concordia University) · Cited by 1
Preface
Burke, P. J., & Stets, J. E. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197617182.002.0006 · Cited by 1
Virtual First Impressions: Zoom backgrounds affect judgements of trust and competence - Now Published in PLOS ONE 10.1371/journal.pone.0291444Preprint
Cook, A., Thompson, M., & Ross, P. D. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/x56vq · Cited by 1
Gendered Issues or Partisan Priorities? The Policy Priorities of Men and Women at Partisan Think TanksPreprint
Manning, A., & Fagan, E. J. (2023) · doi:10.33774/apsa-2023-36f9c-v2 · Cited by 1
Cultural Reproduction or Cultural Repertoire: Women Leaders, Legitimacy and Firm Performance in Family and Nonfamily FirmsPreprint
Kushins, E. R., & Quispe‐Agnoli, M. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4766853 · Cited by 1
The Gender-Equality Paradox in ManagementPreprint
Rost, K., & Doehne, M. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4776269 · Cited by 1
Stereotypical Bias Amplification, and Reversal, in an Experimental Model of Human Interaction with Generative AIPreprint
Allan, K., Azcona, J., Sripada, Y., Leontidis, G., Sutherland, C. A. M., Phillips, L. H., & Martin, D. (2024) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/r7vf5 · Cited by 1
Women Heroes
Carli, L. L. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-48129-1_151 · Cited by 1
Perceptions of Sanctions and Their Effects
Yasrebi, F. (2025) · doi:10.5463/thesis.1036 · Cited by 1
The Effect of Gender on Investors’ Judgements and Decision MakingPreprint
Luo, Y., & Salterio, S. E. (2017) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3036218
Double Jeopardy: What is Mentorship and Diversity-Valuing on Perceived Competence?
Kwan, T. (2019) · Scholarship@Western (Western University)
Teenagers’ gender identity formation technology in the interaction of a single-parent family and school
Pozdnyakova, T. N. (2019) · Research Result Pedagogy and Psychology Of Education · doi:10.18413/2313-8971-2019-5-4-0-5
A Safer Place for Women
Larkin, J. E., & Pines, H. A. (2020) · Advances in mobile and distance learning book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-3583-7.ch007
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Gámez, E., Abella, M. C., Conde, E., González, R. D., & Torbay, Á. (2020) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-020-01146-9
Literature Review and Study Method
Kumar, P., & Singh, G. (2020) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-83982-764-820200003
Promovieren in Informatik – Eine Studie mit Doktorandinnen und Doktoranden
Alfermann, D., & Reimann, S. (2020) · Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie · doi:10.1024/1010-0652/a000295
Who is the ideal worker? How gendered organizations adversely impact women's promotability and development
Steele, C. R. (2020) · doi:10.32469/10355/78161
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Mazei, J., & Hüffmeier, J. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/avpmj
Returning to Rejection: Outcomes and Boundary Conditions of Mental Illness Stereotypes
Fox, S. (2021) · PDXScholar (Portland State University) · doi:10.15760/etd.7543
“…demonstrates that evaluations of women’s competence have raised over the past 70 years due to their increasing representation in work settings (Eagly et al., 2019), when explicitly compared to male coworkers, evaluators rated women as lower in intelligence regardless of their apparent…”
Background
The Effectiveness of Therapy for Gender Equity Based on Religious Doctrines on Gender Role Schema and Psychological Capital in Girls to Delay Marriage Age
Jorjorzadeh, M., Ehteshamzadeh, P., Pasha, R., & Marashian, F. S. (2021) · Journal of Research in Behavioural Sciences · doi:10.52547/rbs.19.1.45

Authors: Eagly, A. H., Nater, C., Miller, D. I., Kaufmann, M., & Sczesny, S.
Affiliations: Northwestern University (US)
University of Bern (CH)
American Institutes for Research (US)
ORCID: Eagly, Alice H.
Nater, Christa
Miller, David I.
Kaufmann, Michèle
Sczesny, Sabine
Venue: American Psychologist
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2020-04
Volume: 75
Issue: 3
Pages: 301-315
ISSN: 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
1935-990X
DOI: 10.1037/amp0000494
OpenAlex: W2961388998
Cited by: 1,136
References: 58
Citations by year: 2026: 175 · 2025: 201 · 2024: 205 · 2023: 175 · 2022: 180 · 2021: 121 · 2020: 63
FWCI: 19.90
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
BORIS (University Library Bern) (submittedVersion)
Funders: Swiss National Science Foundation (P0BEP1_162210)
Topics: Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender and Feminist Studies
Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Media, Gender, and Advertising
Keywords: gender stereotypes, public opinion, cross-temporal change, gender roles, women's roles, gender equality, female superiority, competence, social roles, United States
MeSH terms: Humans, Public Opinion, Stereotyping, United States, History, 20th Century, History, 21st Century, Femininity, Masculinity

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Gender stereotypes have changed: A cross-temporal meta-analysis of U.S. public opinion polls from 1946 to 2018.

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