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Gender stereotypes have changed: A cross-temporal meta-analysis of U.S. public opinion polls from 1946 to 2018.

Eagly, Alice H., Nater, Christa, Miller, David I., Kaufmann, Michèle, Sczesny, Sabine·2020·American Psychologist

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Abstract

This meta-analysis integrated 16 nationally representative U.S. public opinion polls on gender stereotypes (N = 30,093 adults), extending from 1946 to 2018, a span of seven decades that brought considerable change in gender relations, especially in women's roles. In polls inquiring about communion (e.g., affectionate, emotional), agency (e.g., ambitious, courageous), and competence (e.g., intelligent, creative), respondents indicated whether each trait is more true of women or men, or equally true of both. Women's relative advantage in communion increased over time, but men's relative advantage in agency showed no change. Belief in competence equality increased over time, along with belief in female superiority among those who indicated a sex difference in competence. Contemporary gender stereotypes thus convey substantial female advantage in communion and a smaller male advantage in agency but also gender equality in competence along with some female advantage. Interpretation emphasizes the origins of gender stereotypes in the social roles of women and men. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

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“Metaanalysis of US public opinion polls from 1946 to 2018 on gender examined communion, agency, and competence (Eagly et al. 2020).”
BackgroundInfluential
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“There is agreement between the two studies insofar as both show increases in stereotyping over time in aspects of feminine stereotypes (role behaviors, Haines et al. 2016; communal traits, Eagly et al. 2020).”
BackgroundInfluential
Riot Like a Girl? Gender-Stereotypical Associations Boost Support for Feminist Online Campaigns
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“Although research under-scores the persistent nature of stereotypes, it also indicates that change is feasible (McDonald & Crandall, 2015; Stew-art et al., 2021) and has been happening (Bhatia and Bha-tia, 2021; Eagly et al., 2020).”
Connecting gender equality with sustainability in early childhood: educators understandings in Victoria, Australia
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“These frameworks relating to sustainability and gender were chosen as commonly applied frameworks in the literature on each aspect (Eagly et al. 2020; Kraft et al. 2014; Willockx and Dom 2022).”
Impoverished ascriptions: Investigating stereotypes of single parents from a social role perspective
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“These ﬁ ndings could re ﬂ ect evidence that certain gender stereotypes, such as beliefs about competence, are changing (Eagly et al., 2020) or that parental identity engenders baseline assumptions about agency and communion, which might dilute the differential ascription of these characteristics by…”
Self-citation
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“Two-way interaction of coherence x integration for negative parent memory in predicting well-being. to be more relationship-oriented (e.g., Eagly et al., 2020; Haines et al., 2016).”
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“More recent studies reaffirm that gender stereotypes continue to shape career aspirations, hiring decisions, and evaluations of competence, especially when there is a perceived lack of fit between gender and job role (Heilman 2001; Eagly et al. 2020).”
Adults' perceptions of children's negotiation: Effects of target and perceiver gender
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“Recent studies found a declining inﬂuence of gender for humans (Eagly et al. 2020) and artiﬁcial agents, possibly resulting from higher awareness towards the inﬂuence that gender stereotypes have traditionally had in social interactions (Nag and Yalçın 2020).”
Identity
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“Decades of research have shown that people assume women are warm and communal, thus unsuited for leadership, while men are perceived as agentic and assertive (Brescoll, 2016; Eagly et al., 2020; Eagly & Karau, 2002).”
Are women less convincing or perceivers biased? Understanding differential reactions towards men and women’s intentions to exert influence
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Authors: Eagly, A. H., Nater, C., Miller, D. I., Kaufmann, M., & Sczesny, S.
Affiliations: Northwestern University (US)
University of Bern (CH)
American Institutes for Research (US)
ORCID: Eagly, Alice H.
Nater, Christa
Miller, David I.
Kaufmann, Michèle
Sczesny, Sabine
Venue: American Psychologist
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2020-04
Volume: 75
Issue: 3
Pages: 301-315
ISSN: 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
1935-990X
DOI: 10.1037/amp0000494
OpenAlex: W2961388998
Cited by: 1,136
References: 58
Citations by year: 2026: 175 · 2025: 201 · 2024: 205 · 2023: 175 · 2022: 180 · 2021: 121 · 2020: 63
FWCI: 19.90
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
BORIS (University Library Bern) (submittedVersion)
Funders: Swiss National Science Foundation (P0BEP1_162210)
Topics: Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender and Feminist Studies
Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Media, Gender, and Advertising
Keywords: gender stereotypes, public opinion, cross-temporal change, gender roles, women's roles, gender equality, female superiority, competence, social roles, United States
MeSH terms: Humans, Public Opinion, Stereotyping, United States, History, 20th Century, History, 21st Century, Femininity, Masculinity

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Gender stereotypes have changed: A cross-temporal meta-analysis of U.S. public opinion polls from 1946 to 2018.

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