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Gender stereotypes have changed: A cross-temporal meta-analysis of U.S. public opinion polls from 1946 to 2018.

Eagly, Alice H., Nater, Christa, Miller, David I., Kaufmann, Michèle, Sczesny, Sabine·2020·American Psychologist

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Abstract

This meta-analysis integrated 16 nationally representative U.S. public opinion polls on gender stereotypes (N = 30,093 adults), extending from 1946 to 2018, a span of seven decades that brought considerable change in gender relations, especially in women's roles. In polls inquiring about communion (e.g., affectionate, emotional), agency (e.g., ambitious, courageous), and competence (e.g., intelligent, creative), respondents indicated whether each trait is more true of women or men, or equally true of both. Women's relative advantage in communion increased over time, but men's relative advantage in agency showed no change. Belief in competence equality increased over time, along with belief in female superiority among those who indicated a sex difference in competence. Contemporary gender stereotypes thus convey substantial female advantage in communion and a smaller male advantage in agency but also gender equality in competence along with some female advantage. Interpretation emphasizes the origins of gender stereotypes in the social roles of women and men. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

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“Traditionally, society expects women to be high in communion (orientation toward people and emotions), while society expects men to be high in agency (orientation toward the self and personal goal achievement) (Bem, 1993; Eagly et al., 2020).”
BackgroundInfluential
More guilty if woman: The role of gender and causal attribution in political scandals’ impact
Cucchi, S., & Cavazza, N. (2020) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2020.1779641 · Cited by 21
“This is in line with the finding that the gap between men and women increased over time as concerns the attribution of communion traits, whereas it is stable as concerns the attribution of agentic traits (Eagly et al., 2019).”
Result
Gender Construction in the Indonesian Government-Distributed English Textbook: Combining Critical Discourse Analysis and Corpus Linguistics
Suwarno, S., Triyono, S., Ashadi, A., & Sahayu, W. (2021) · Sexuality & Culture · doi:10.1007/s12119-021-09870-5 · Cited by 42
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“Alternatively, strengthening stereotypes associating women as communal (Eagly et al., 2020) may prompt women to intentionally conform to norms and avoid back-lash by leading in more caring ways.”
Gender Stereotypes in Student Evaluations of Teaching
Renström, E. A., Sendén, M. G., & Lindqvist, A. L. (2021) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2020.571287 · Cited by 20
Are gender stereotypes changing over time? A cross-temporal analysis of perceptions about gender stereotypes in Spain ( ¿Están cambiando los estereotipos de género con el tiempo? Un análisis transtemporal de las percepciones sobre los estereotipos de género en España )
López‐Zafra, E., & García‐Retamero, R. (2021) · International Journal of Social Psychology Revista de Psicología Social · doi:10.1080/02134748.2021.1882227 · Cited by 20
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Lou, X., Li, L. M. W., Xia, W., & Zhu, Q. (2022) · Anthropocene · doi:10.1016/j.ancene.2022.100335 · Cited by 20
Gender role stereotypes at work in humanoid robots
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“The stereo-type of males retained the relative advantage referable to agency (e.g. ambitious, courageous), while beliefs related to an equality of competence (e.g. intelligent, creative) between the two genders have increased over time (Eagly et al. 2019).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Looks Like a Leader: Measuring Evolution in Gendered Politician Stereotypes
van der Pas, D., Aaldering, L., & Bos, A. L. (2023) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-023-09888-5 · Cited by 26
“At the same time, women’s relative advantage over men on communal traits increased (Eagly et al., 2020).”
Influential
Gender Bias Impacts Top-Merited Candidates
Andersson, E. R., Hagberg, C. E., & Hägg, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Research Metrics and Analytics · doi:10.3389/frma.2021.594424 · Cited by 24
Impact of Gender and Expatriation Choice on Career Paths in Supply Chain Management: Evidence from Master of Science Graduates
Ruel, S., & Jaegler, A. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13126907 · Cited by 20
Boosting children’s math self-efficacy by enriching their growth mindsets and gender-fair beliefs
Lee, J., Lee, H. J., & Bong, M. (2021) · Theory Into Practice · doi:10.1080/00405841.2021.1932156 · Cited by 26
Smiles and Angry Faces vs. Nods and Head Shakes: Facial Expressions at the Service of Autonomous Vehicles
Rouchitsas, A., & Alm, H. (2023) · Multimodal Technologies and Interaction · doi:10.3390/mti7020010 · Cited by 22
An intersectional lens on young leaders: bias toward young women and young men in leadership positions
Daldrop, C., Buengeler, C., & Homan, A. C. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1204547 · Cited by 28
“, ambitious, self-directed; Francioli and North, 2021) and men (e.g., assertive, agentic; Eagly et al., 2020) may overlap, resulting in a more amplified age bias toward the intersectional category of young men (compared to young women).”
Background
Attracted to the Hustle? An Impression Management Perspective on Entrepreneurial Hustle in New Venture Recruitment
Kindermann, B., Hocker, A., & Strese, S. (2023) · Journal of Management Studies · doi:10.1111/joms.13011 · Cited by 20
Stereotypes versus preferences: Revisiting the role of alpha males in leadership
Wiezel, A., Barlev, M., Martos, C. R., & Kenrick, D. T. (2024) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2024.01.001 · Cited by 27
Forget the “Mommy Track”: Temporal Flexibility Increases Promotion Aspirations for Women and Reduces Gender Gaps
Bear, J. B. (2021) · Psychology of Women Quarterly · doi:10.1177/03616843211003070 · Cited by 20
The Ginevra de’ Benci Effect: Competence, Morality, and Attractiveness Inferred From Faces Predict Hiring Decisions for Women
Menegatti, M., Pireddu, S., Crocetti, E., Moscatelli, S., & Rubini, M. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.658424 · Cited by 18
Uncovering gender bias in attitudes towards financial advisors
Klein, G., Shtudiner, Z., & Zwilling, M. (2021) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2021.06.040 · Cited by 21
The mitigating effect of desiring status on social backlash against ambitious women
Mishra, S., & Kray, L. J. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2022.104355 · Cited by 19
From imposter fears to authenticity: a typology of women entrepreneurs
Chadwick, I. C., & Dawson, A. (2023) · Small Business Economics · doi:10.1007/s11187-023-00795-x · Cited by 21
“…being competitive, a risk taker; Ahl, 2006; Jennings et al., 2013), which creates tensions for women entrepreneurs who are also expected to behave in “feminine” ways in line with the traditional norms of their gender identity (e.g., being communal, caring; Eagly et al., 2020; Ritter & Yoder, 2004).”
The odd woman out: An (in)congruity analysis of gender stereotyping in gender‐dominant public sector professions
Dinhof, K., & Willems, J. (2023) · Public Administration Review · doi:10.1111/puar.13703 · Cited by 20
Gendered Beliefs in STEM Undergraduates: A Comparative Analysis of Fuzzy Rating versus Likert Scales
Castaño, A. M., Lubiano, M. A., & Izquierdo, A. L. G. (2020) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su12156227 · Cited by 17
Think scientists—Think male: Science and leadership are still more strongly associated with men than with women in Germany
Nett, N., Nett, T., Englert, J., & Gaschler, R. (2021) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.12761 · Cited by 23
“Agentic attributes are more strongly associated with men than with women, whereas communal attributes are more strongly associated with women than with men (Bakan, 1966; Eagly, 2013; Eagly & JohannesenSchmidt, 2001; Eagly & Karau, 2002; Eagly et al., 2020).”
BackgroundResult
Gender, Race, and Leadership
Begeny, C. T., Wong, C. Y., Kirby, T. A., & Rink, F. A. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.450 · Cited by 29
Stereotypical bias amplification and reversal in an experimental model of human interaction with generative artificial intelligence
Allan, K., Azcona, J., Sripada, S. G., Leontidis, G., Sutherland, C. A. M., Phillips, L. H., & Martin, D. S. (2025) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.241472 · Cited by 19
The deficit bias: Candidate gender differences in the relative importance of facial stereotypic qualities to leadership hiring
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The Social Perception of Autonomous Delivery Vehicles Based on the Stereotype Content Model
Pröbster, M., & Marsden, N. (2023) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su15065194 · Cited by 18
Peer performance evaluations in global virtual teams: A longitudinal analysis of surface- and deep-level attributes
Tavoletti, E., Bernhard, T., Dong, L., & Taras, V. (2023) · Journal of International Management · doi:10.1016/j.intman.2023.101029 · Cited by 18

Authors: Eagly, A. H., Nater, C., Miller, D. I., Kaufmann, M., & Sczesny, S.
Affiliations: Northwestern University (US)
University of Bern (CH)
American Institutes for Research (US)
ORCID: Eagly, Alice H.
Nater, Christa
Miller, David I.
Kaufmann, Michèle
Sczesny, Sabine
Venue: American Psychologist
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2020-04
Volume: 75
Issue: 3
Pages: 301-315
ISSN: 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
1935-990X
DOI: 10.1037/amp0000494
OpenAlex: W2961388998
Cited by: 1,136
References: 58
Citations by year: 2026: 175 · 2025: 201 · 2024: 205 · 2023: 175 · 2022: 180 · 2021: 121 · 2020: 63
FWCI: 19.90
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
BORIS (University Library Bern) (submittedVersion)
Funders: Swiss National Science Foundation (P0BEP1_162210)
Topics: Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender and Feminist Studies
Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Media, Gender, and Advertising
Keywords: gender stereotypes, public opinion, cross-temporal change, gender roles, women's roles, gender equality, female superiority, competence, social roles, United States
MeSH terms: Humans, Public Opinion, Stereotyping, United States, History, 20th Century, History, 21st Century, Femininity, Masculinity

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Gender stereotypes have changed: A cross-temporal meta-analysis of U.S. public opinion polls from 1946 to 2018.

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