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Gender stereotypes have changed: A cross-temporal meta-analysis of U.S. public opinion polls from 1946 to 2018.

Eagly, Alice H., Nater, Christa, Miller, David I., Kaufmann, Michèle, Sczesny, Sabine·2020·American Psychologist

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Abstract

This meta-analysis integrated 16 nationally representative U.S. public opinion polls on gender stereotypes (N = 30,093 adults), extending from 1946 to 2018, a span of seven decades that brought considerable change in gender relations, especially in women's roles. In polls inquiring about communion (e.g., affectionate, emotional), agency (e.g., ambitious, courageous), and competence (e.g., intelligent, creative), respondents indicated whether each trait is more true of women or men, or equally true of both. Women's relative advantage in communion increased over time, but men's relative advantage in agency showed no change. Belief in competence equality increased over time, along with belief in female superiority among those who indicated a sex difference in competence. Contemporary gender stereotypes thus convey substantial female advantage in communion and a smaller male advantage in agency but also gender equality in competence along with some female advantage. Interpretation emphasizes the origins of gender stereotypes in the social roles of women and men. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

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“On the other hand, gender stereotypes have changed over time, and in particular, women are believed to be more competent than in the past (Eagly et al., 2020).”
Background
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“For example, as more women obtain an education and enter the workforce, they are increasingly perceived as more agentic and competent (Diekman and Eagly 2000; Diekman et al. 2004; Eagly et al. 2020).”
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“Indeed, public opinion data (Eagly et al., 2019) show that U.S. respondents in the early 21 st century ascribed competence more to women than to men.”
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“Recent research shows that gender stereotypes about women in general have changed over the past few decades, moving away from the traditional understanding of practices and traits associated with women (Eagly et al., 2019).”
Influential
Gender, Voice, and Job Stereotypes
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“Patterns of polarization notwithstanding, there is evidence of growing acceptance of some feminist attitudes such as women’s workforce participation and family obligations (Bolzendahl and Myers 2004; Davis and Greenstein 2009; Eagly et al. 2020).”
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Yang, D., & Liu, Y. (2024) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2024.2344151 · Cited by 4
“Women are believed to possess more communal attributes, such as being affectionate, sympathetic, and interpersonally sensitive (e.g., Eagly et al., 2020), which are associated with emotional exchange.”
Mathematics Motivation and Mathematics Performance: Does Gender Play a Role?
Bohrnstedt, G. W., Zhang, J., Li, M., Ikoma, S., Park, B. J., & Broer, M. (2024) · AERA Open · doi:10.1177/23328584241298272 · Cited by 18
“10 Eagly et al. (2020) discovered shifts in gender stereotypes by comparing the 1940s with recent times, using a meta-analysis of 16 nationally representative public opinion polls conducted over time.”
Gender Differences in Perception of Gender Inequity in Human Resource Management Practices
Basuil, D. A., Agarwal, A., Manegold, J. G., & Casper, W. J. (2025) · Human Resource Management Journal · doi:10.1111/1748-8583.12588 · Cited by 4
“A Recipe for Disaster?”: Female-Breadwinner Relationships Threaten Heterosexual Scripts
Fisher, A. N., Stinson, D. A., Kalajdzic, A., Dupuis, H. E., Lowey, E. E., Desgrosseilliers, E., & MacIntosh, A. (2025) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-025-01560-y · Cited by 8
“The pattern of observed null results for Olivia suggests that heterosexual scripts may be shifting for some women in some contexts, which is consistent with recent research suggesting that female gender stereotypes have become more agentic in recent years (Eagly et al., 2020).”
Children’s gendered expectations of moral parties
Grigoreva, A. D., & Tasimi, A. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-94375-6 · Cited by 4
“Indeed, while men are stereotyped as more agentic than women 40 , they are also viewed as more aggressive, forceful, hostile, and unprincipled 36,41 , which also translates into implicit associations of men with threats 37 as well as violence, destruction, and rage 38 .”

Authors: Eagly, A. H., Nater, C., Miller, D. I., Kaufmann, M., & Sczesny, S.
Affiliations: Northwestern University (US)
University of Bern (CH)
American Institutes for Research (US)
ORCID: Eagly, Alice H.
Nater, Christa
Miller, David I.
Kaufmann, Michèle
Sczesny, Sabine
Venue: American Psychologist
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2020-04
Volume: 75
Issue: 3
Pages: 301-315
ISSN: 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
1935-990X
DOI: 10.1037/amp0000494
OpenAlex: W2961388998
Cited by: 1,136
References: 58
Citations by year: 2026: 175 · 2025: 201 · 2024: 205 · 2023: 175 · 2022: 180 · 2021: 121 · 2020: 63
FWCI: 19.90
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
BORIS (University Library Bern) (submittedVersion)
Funders: Swiss National Science Foundation (P0BEP1_162210)
Topics: Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender and Feminist Studies
Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Media, Gender, and Advertising
Keywords: gender stereotypes, public opinion, cross-temporal change, gender roles, women's roles, gender equality, female superiority, competence, social roles, United States
MeSH terms: Humans, Public Opinion, Stereotyping, United States, History, 20th Century, History, 21st Century, Femininity, Masculinity

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Gender stereotypes have changed: A cross-temporal meta-analysis of U.S. public opinion polls from 1946 to 2018.

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