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Gender stereotypes have changed: A cross-temporal meta-analysis of U.S. public opinion polls from 1946 to 2018.

Eagly, Alice H., Nater, Christa, Miller, David I., Kaufmann, Michèle, Sczesny, Sabine·2020·American Psychologist

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Abstract

This meta-analysis integrated 16 nationally representative U.S. public opinion polls on gender stereotypes (N = 30,093 adults), extending from 1946 to 2018, a span of seven decades that brought considerable change in gender relations, especially in women's roles. In polls inquiring about communion (e.g., affectionate, emotional), agency (e.g., ambitious, courageous), and competence (e.g., intelligent, creative), respondents indicated whether each trait is more true of women or men, or equally true of both. Women's relative advantage in communion increased over time, but men's relative advantage in agency showed no change. Belief in competence equality increased over time, along with belief in female superiority among those who indicated a sex difference in competence. Contemporary gender stereotypes thus convey substantial female advantage in communion and a smaller male advantage in agency but also gender equality in competence along with some female advantage. Interpretation emphasizes the origins of gender stereotypes in the social roles of women and men. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

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“, warm, caring, and tender-mindedness; Feingold, 1994), a pattern that has become increasingly pronounced over the past 70 years (Eagly et al., 2020).”
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“Women are also stereotyped as being more communal than men (Eagly et al., 2020; Infanger & Sczesny, 2015).”
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“Although the content of Americans ’ beliefs about women ’ s and men ’ s characteristics and skillsets has changed over time, the belief that women and men have different characteristics and skillsets has not (Eagly et al., 2020).”
Tweeting to Triumph: Gender differences in harnessing social media for crowdfunding
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“According to social role theory, the majority of these beliefs and stereotypes associated with women and men pertain to communal and agentic attributes (Eagly et al., 2020, for a cross-temporal meta-analysis).”
Influential
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“At the same time, numerous public opinion surveys suggest that certain traits, such as stubbornness and decisiveness, are more associated with males while other behaviors, such as sensitivity and being emotional, are more associated with females (Eagly et al. 2019).”
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“Ambos resultados implican que, a pesar de los cambios que se están observando en la sociedad, se siguen encontrando diferencias entre hombres y mujeres con respecto a comportamientos y actitudes (Eagly et al., 2020).”
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“Research shows that public policy interventions that respond to social and demographic changes may help mitigate structural issues over time (Eagly et al. 2020).”
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“Although communal traits (e.g., kind, sentient) and intelligence were more associated with women as found in past studies (Eagly et al. 2020), agentic traits (e.g., violent, hardworking, brave) were not always more associated with French men.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
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“Contemporary research suggests women are judged by di ﬀ erent standards than men, partly because they are perceived as repositories of stereotypical feminine attributes like being nurturing, compassionate, or emotional (Banwart, 2010; Eagly et al., 2020).”
Background
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“Increased horizontal segregation, however, might promote larger gender gaps in communion stereotypes as women disproportionately enter the service sector (Eagly et al., 2020; Gartzia, 2022).”
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Authors: Eagly, A. H., Nater, C., Miller, D. I., Kaufmann, M., & Sczesny, S.
Affiliations: Northwestern University (US)
University of Bern (CH)
American Institutes for Research (US)
ORCID: Eagly, Alice H.
Nater, Christa
Miller, David I.
Kaufmann, Michèle
Sczesny, Sabine
Venue: American Psychologist
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2020-04
Volume: 75
Issue: 3
Pages: 301-315
ISSN: 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
1935-990X
DOI: 10.1037/amp0000494
OpenAlex: W2961388998
Cited by: 1,136
References: 58
Citations by year: 2026: 175 · 2025: 201 · 2024: 205 · 2023: 175 · 2022: 180 · 2021: 121 · 2020: 63
FWCI: 19.90
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
BORIS (University Library Bern) (submittedVersion)
Funders: Swiss National Science Foundation (P0BEP1_162210)
Topics: Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender and Feminist Studies
Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Media, Gender, and Advertising
Keywords: gender stereotypes, public opinion, cross-temporal change, gender roles, women's roles, gender equality, female superiority, competence, social roles, United States
MeSH terms: Humans, Public Opinion, Stereotyping, United States, History, 20th Century, History, 21st Century, Femininity, Masculinity

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Gender stereotypes have changed: A cross-temporal meta-analysis of U.S. public opinion polls from 1946 to 2018.

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