Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction Triggers a Long-Term Shift toward More Positive Appraisals of Emotional Ambiguity

“Data preprocessing, analysis, and plotting were completed using R (R Core Team, 2017) along with the mousetrap (Kieslich et al., 2019), lme4 (Bates et al., 2015), emmeans, (Lenth et al., 2020), lmerTest (Kuznetsova et al., 2017), car (Fox & Weisberg, 2019), and ggplot2 (Wickham, 2016) packages.”

“Data preprocessing, analysis, and plotting were completed using R (R Core Team, 2017) along with the mousetrap (Kieslich et al., 2019), lme4 (Bates et al., 2015), emmeans, (Lenth et al., 2020), lmerTest (Kuznetsova et al., 2017), car (Fox & Weisberg, 2019), and ggplot2 (Wickham, 2016) packages.”

“Mindfulness – a concept rooted in Buddhist tradition – is characterized by both a conscious attention to the present moment (Brown & Ryan, 2003) as well as a non-judgmental and non-reactive attitude towards one’s bodily sensations, thoughts, and emotions (Kabat-Zinn, 1990).”

“Additionally, the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ; Baer et al., 2006) was administered during the first, third, and fifth sessions to assess self-reported mindfulness throughout the training.”

“Some stress can be beneficial (Jamieson et al., 2018; Yerkes & Dodson, 1908); for instance, pre-race cortisol levels – a physiological marker of stress – are associated with faster swim times in elite athletes (Rano et al., 2019), and stress can be harnessed to increase facilitative, rather than…”

“Theoretical (Shapiro et al., 2006) and empirical work (Carmody et al.”

“There is growing evidence that MBSR relieves symptoms of a variety of psychopathologies, including mood and anxiety disorders (e.g., rumination and worry; Hofmann et al., 2010; Querstret et al., 2020), at a rate that is comparable with other evidence-based treatments (e.”

“These stimuli were selected from the Karolinska Directed Emotional Faces (Lundqvist et al., 1998), Umea (Samuelsson et al., 2012), and NimStim sets (Tottenham et al., 2009).”

“Another meta-analysis, focused on MBSR specifically, showed similar benefits for indices of self-reported stress, depression and anxiety symptomology, quality of life, and burnout (Khoury et al., 2015).”

“…an integrated mindful emotion regulation framework posits that mindfulness meditation may lead to greater conscious control of one’s cognitions, emotions, and sensations (Chambers et al., 2009; Garland et al., 2011), supporting more flexible and adaptive responses (e.g., positive reappraisals).”

“For instance, in the context of emotion, competing cognitive representations might result from parallel activation of positive and negative valence representations (e.g., Cacioppo et al., 1997; Norris et al., 2010).”

“In social contexts, valence bias offers insight into the stereotype-based expectancies that drive social decision-making (Harp et al., 2021; Macrae et al., 1994).”

“For instance, those with a more negative valence bias may maintain negative perceptions of ambiguity, which ultimately leads to confirmatory searches for more negative information in a self-perpetuating manner (Snyder & Swann, 1978; Trope & Thompson, 1997).”

“On the other hand, chronic or uncontrolled stress negatively impacts both physical (Everson-Rose & Lewis, 2005; Low et al., 2009) and psychological well-being (Berghdal & Berghdal, 2002), as well as cognitive function (e.g., working memory deficits; Schoofs et al., 2009).”

“…practice than actually achieved), and differences in the abilities of novices versus more experienced mindfulness practitioners to self-report (e.g., long-term practitioners likely have greater insight into their own experience with mindfulness-related constructs; Davidson & Kaszniak, 2015).”

“The valence bias and color-rating tasks were completed using a JavaScript-based online implementation of MouseTracker software (Freeman & Ambady, 2010) to collect response and mouse trajectory data.”

“…protein) predict a greater risk for depression (Wium-28 Andersen et al., 2013), and recent evidence has shown that psychosocial interventions (e.g., cognitive-behavioral therapy, mindfulness-based interventions) reduce these inflammatory immune markers (Black & Slavich, 2016; Shields et al., 2020).”

“…an integrated mindful emotion regulation framework posits that mindfulness meditation may lead to greater conscious control of one’s cognitions, emotions, and sensations (Chambers et al., 2009; Garland et al., 2011), supporting more flexible and adaptive responses (e.g., positive reappraisals).”

“…in self-reported negative affect and improvements in self-reported well-being may be attributable to greater mindfulness-related flexibility (Carmody et al., 2009; Shaprio et al., 2006; Silberstein et al., 2012) and its associated improvement in emotion regulation abilities (Sayers et al.,…”

“We report 95% CIs and effect sizes when possible, but note that linear mixed effects models do not have an agreed upon method for calculating effect sizes (see Rights & Sterba, 2019, for a discussion).”

“This finding is consistent with previous work showing mindfulness-related attenuation of negativity bias (Erisman & Roemer, 2010; Kiken & Shook, 2011).”

“MD is the maximum perpendicular deviation from a straight-line response trajectory on any given trial, and this measure quantifies response competition as the maximal attraction toward the competing or unselected response (Freeman et al., 2011; Hehman et al., 2015).”

“Such a change would be expected to promote positivity towards emotional ambiguity, as this pattern of activation in ventromedial prefrontal cortex and amygdala activity are associated with a more positive valence bias (Kim et al., 2003; Petro et al., 2018).”

“, 2017), car (Fox & Weisberg, 2019), and ggplot2 (Wickham, 2016) packages.”

“…facilitates social connection, perhaps through greater empathy (Neta & Brock, 2021) or more secure attachment (Brock, Harp, & Neta, in revision), and maintaining positive social connections during uncertain times protects against negative physical and mental health outcomes (Nitschke et al., 2020).”

“Although speculative, the MBSR-induced change in non-reactivity is likely prompting an increased functional connectivity of brain regions linked to emotion regulation (i.e., increased ventromedial prefrontal cortex activity along with decreased amygdala activity; Kral et al., 2018).”

“For instance, a recent meta-analysis revealed that short-term mindfulness interventions (i.e., less than two weeks) reduce self-reported negative affect (Schumer et al., 2018).”

“There is growing evidence that MBSR relieves symptoms of a variety of psychopathologies, including mood and anxiety disorders (e.g., rumination and worry; Hofmann et al., 2010; Querstret et al., 2020), at a rate that is comparable with other evidence-based treatments (e.”

“As such, altering our maladaptive stress responses, such as in chronic or uncontrolled stress, via stress reduction techniques can have downstream benefits for both physical (Rosenkranz et al., 2013) and psychological (Britton et al., 2012) well-being.”

“, 2009) and psychological well-being (Berghdal & Berghdal, 2002), as well as cognitive function (e.g., working memory deficits; Schoofs et al., 2009).”

“As such, altering our maladaptive stress responses, such as in chronic or uncontrolled stress, via stress reduction techniques can have downstream benefits for both physical (Rosenkranz et al., 2013) and psychological (Britton et al., 2012) well-being.”

“Some stress can be beneficial (Jamieson et al., 2018; Yerkes & Dodson, 1908); for instance, pre-race cortisol levels – a physiological marker of stress – are associated with faster swim times in elite athletes (Rano et al., 2019), and stress can be harnessed to increase facilitative, rather than…”

“…protein) predict a greater risk for depression (Wium-28 Andersen et al., 2013), and recent evidence has shown that psychosocial interventions (e.g., cognitive-behavioral therapy, mindfulness-based interventions) reduce these inflammatory immune markers (Black & Slavich, 2016; Shields et al., 2020).”

“On the other hand, chronic or uncontrolled stress negatively impacts both physical (Everson-Rose & Lewis, 2005; Low et al., 2009) and psychological well-being (Berghdal & Berghdal, 2002), as well as cognitive function (e.g., working memory deficits; Schoofs et al., 2009).”

“, cognitive–behavioral therapy, mindfulness-based interventions) reduce these inflammatory immune markers (Black & Slavich, 2016; Shields et al., 2020).”

“For instance, in the context of emotion, competing cognitive representations might result from parallel activation of positive and negative valence representations (e.g., Cacioppo et al., 1997; Norris et al., 2010).”

“MD is the maximum perpendicular deviation from a straight-line response trajectory on any given trial, and this measure quantifies response competition as the maximal attraction toward the competing or unselected response (Freeman et al., 2011; Hehman et al., 2015).”

“Interestingly, these neural effects of non-reactivity may contribute to reduced depressive symptoms (Paul et al., 2013), which are inversely related with a positive valence bias (Petro et al., 2021; Brock & Neta, 2021) and may be suggestive of a mechanism through which mindfulness protects against…”

“…expressions predict both positive (unexpected visit from an old friend) and negative (witnessing a car crash) outcomes, and, in the absence of context, individuals differ in their tendency to appraise these ambiguous signals as positive or negative (Harp et al., 2021; Neta et al., 2009; 2013).”

“On the other hand, chronic or uncontrolled stress negatively impacts both physical (Everson-Rose & Lewis, 2005; Low et al., 2009) and psychological well-being (Berghdal & Berghdal, 2002), as well as cognitive function (e.”

“Interestingly, accumulating evidence suggests people have a default, initial negativity, and a positive valence bias appears to rely on slower, more controlled processing (Neta & Whalen, 2010; Neta & Tong, 2016; Neta, Berkebile, & Freeman, 2020).”

“Such reductions in self-reported negative affect and improvements in self-reported well-being may be attributable to greater mindfulness-related flexibility (Carmody et al., 2009; Shapiro et al., 2006; Silberstein et al., 2012) and its associated improvement in emotion regulation abilities (Sayers et al.”

“For instance, those with a more negative valence bias may maintain negative perceptions of ambiguity, which ultimately leads to confirmatory searches for more negative information in a self-perpetuating manner (Snyder & Swann, 1978; Trope & Thompson, 1997).”

“In line with these findings, situations that hamper cognitive control, such as elevated stress (Brown et al., 2017) or emotional arousal brought on by unpredictable and adverse events (i.e., a threat of shock paradigm; Neta et al., 2017), lead to a more negative valence bias.”

“The COVID-19 sample completed the valence bias task in Gorilla Experiment Builder (Anwyl-Irvine et al., 2020) for both sessions.”

“…expressions predict both positive (unexpected visit from an old friend) and negative (witnessing a car crash) outcomes, and, in the absence of context, individuals differ in their tendency to appraise these ambiguous signals as positive or negative (Harp et al., 2021; Neta et al., 2009; 2013).”

“However, this work is limited by its reliance on either self-report questionnaires (e.g., Zou et al., 2020), or other methodological concerns described above.”

“Such a change would be expected to promote positivity towards emotional ambiguity, as this pattern of activation in ventromedial prefrontal cortex and amygdala activity are associated with a more positive valence bias (Kim et al., 2003; Petro et al., 2018).”

“These stimuli were selected from the Karolinska Directed Emotional Faces (Lundqvist et al., 1998), Umea (Samuelsson et al., 2012), and NimStim sets (Tottenham et al., 2009).”

“This hypothesis suggests that initial responses to emotional ambiguity tend to be negative and that more positive responses come about through greater deliberation (Neta & Tong, 2016) and recruitment of brain regions involved in emotion regulation (Petro et al., 2018).”

“In line with these findings, situations that hamper cognitive control, such as elevated stress (Brown et al., 2017) or emotional arousal brought on by unpredictable and adverse events (i.e., a threat of shock paradigm; Neta et al., 2017), lead to a more negative valence bias.”

“…Yerkes & Dodson, 1908); for instance, pre-race cortisol levels – a physiological marker of stress – are associated with faster swim times in elite athletes (Rano et al., 2019), and stress can be harnessed to increase facilitative, rather than debilitative, competition anxiety (Kerr & Leith, 1993).”

“Last but not least, valence bias has been shown to relate to subclinical levels of internalizing symptomology (see Petro, Tottenham, & Neta, 2021; Neta & Brock, 2021).”

“…in self-reported negative affect and improvements in self-reported well-being may be attributable to greater mindfulness-related flexibility (Carmody et al., 2009; Shaprio et al., 2006; Silberstein et al., 2012) and its associated improvement in emotion regulation abilities (Sayers et al., 2015).”

“In social contexts, valence bias offers insight into the stereotype-based expectancies that drive social decision-making (Harp et al., 2021; Macrae et al., 1994; Pauker et al., 2010).”

“Indeed, a more positive valence bias has been linked to both physical (Neta et al., 2019) and psychological well-being (Neta et al., 2017; Petro et al., 2021), and promoting positivity in the face of ambiguity likely mitigates negative affect in day-to-day life (Puccetti et al., under review).”

“characterized by both a conscious attention to the present moment (Brown & Ryan, 2003) as well as a nonjudgmental and nonreactive attitude toward one’s bodily sensations, thoughts, and emotions (Kabat-Zinn, 1990).”

“Indeed, a more positive valence bias has been linked to both physical (Neta et al., 2019) and psychological well-being (Neta et al., 2017; Petro et al., 2021), and promoting positivity in the face of ambiguity likely mitigates negative affect in day-to-day life (Puccetti et al., under review).”

“…Yerkes & Dodson, 1908); for instance, pre-race cortisol levels – a physiological marker of stress – are associated with faster swim times in elite athletes (Rano et al., 2019), and stress can be harnessed to increase facilitative, rather than debilitative, competition anxiety (Kerr & Leith, 1993).”

“Further, valence bias is both a stable (Harp et al., 2022) and generalizable response (Harp et al., 2021; Neta et al., 2013) that is linked to internalizing behaviors and negative affect (e.g., depression symptoms, neuroticism; Brock et al., 2022; Neta & Brock, 2021; Petro et al., 2021) as well as…”

“However, like the WSAP, there is strong evidence that scores on this task are stable over various timespans (1 week, Neta et al., 2018; 6 months, Harp et al., 2022; and 1 year, Neta et al., 2009).”

“It is also worth noting that other work has suggested that the valence bias is a trait-like characteristic such that participant ’ s bias remained stable after one week (Neta et al., 2018) and longer timescales of six months and even one year (Harp, Freeman, et al., 2022; Neta et al., 2009).”

“These differences in valence bias are relatively stable acrosstime(Harp et al., 2022; Neta et al., 2009) and across stimulus categories, such as emotionally ambiguous faces, scenes, and words (Harp et al., 2021; Neta et al., 2013).”

“This gap in our knowledge needs to be addressed because the answer will have important implications for interventions based on the assumption that teaching mindfulness can have long-lasting positive effects (e.g., Harp et al., 2022).”

“Supporting its usefulness as a prognostic risk factor, valence bias is a trait-like difference that is stable over time (Harp et al., 2022) and generalizes across responsesto emotionallyambiguous faces, scenes, and words (Harp et al., 2021; Neta et al., 2013).”

“Recent accounts have demonstrated that mindfulness increases positive reappraisal processes to promote well-being (Garland, 2021; Garland et al., 2017; Harp et al., 2022).”

“Consistent with our prior report using a slightly larger sample (Harp et al., 2022), we compared valence bias from pre-(i.e., sessions one and two) to post-training (i.e., sessions three and four).”

“Furthermore, our results suggest that Acceptance as a mediator of change is a worthwhile candidate of research efforts, in line with existing evidence [62, 101, 105].”

“The individual differences in one ’ s tendency to judge ambiguous information as more negative or positive constitute one ’ s valence bias (Neta et al., 2009), which is temporally stable over periods of weeks to years (Harp et al., 2022; Neta et al., 2009).”

“A recent study investigated the effects of Mind-fulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) on responses to emotionally ambiguous signals at five time points: baseline, after the first MBSR, before and after the final MBSR, and 8 weeks after MBSR (Harp et al., 2022).”

“Indeed, some evidence suggests that positivity training might successfully expand the positivity bias and decrease psychopathology (Becker et al., 2016) and that mindfulness training can lead to a long-lasting shift toward positivity (Harp et al., 2022).”

“…of the trials in either task version ( n = 9), or if their response accuracy for clearly valenced stimuli (happy/angry faces) was below 60% ( n = 130 for the RADIATE task; n = additional 46 for the all-White task), as in prior work (Harp et al., 2022; Neta et al., 2009, 2013; Petro et al., 2018).”

“…view challenges as opportunities to express their potential by triggering pleasant emotions and functional biopsychosocial experiences. altogether, mindfulness can be found to promote a shift towards positivity bias, which is uniquely supported by reduced emotional reactivity (harp et al., 2022).”

“…in part to a mindfulness-related amelioration of the negativity bias reported by several mindfulness intervention researchers (e.g. Erisman & Roemer, 2010; Kiken & Shook, 2011) and highlighted specifically in a shift toward more positive processing of ambiguous emotion faces (Harp et al., 2022).”

“Althoughvalence biasisarelativelystabletraitwithin individuals (Harp et al. 2022; Neta et al. 2009), there is some work suggesting that stress may amplify negative valence bias by pri-oritising default or automatic emotional responses (C. C. Brown et al. 2017; Neta et al. 2017).”

“Similarly, Harp et al. (2022) found that a shift toward positivity in mind-fulness patients occurred over the course of a mindfulness training program.”

“In prior work, we have established high test–retest reliability of valence bias across a period of 6 months, and even 1 year (Harp et al. 2022; Neta et al. 2009).”

“In addition to this generalizability across categories, valence bias shows high test-retest reliability across a period of several weeks and even up to a year (Harp et al., 2022); that is, valence bias appears relatively stable.”

“The potential benefits of mindfulness extend beyond its well-established role in stress reduction and emotional regulation (Harp et al., 2022).”

“For instance, it is hypothesized that heightened regulatory capabilities may result in a tendency for more positively biased interpretations of ambiguous facial expressions, while individuals with lower regulatory skills may exhibit the opposite inclination 26,27,40 .”

“Reported psychological well-being after 8 weeks of MBSR training points out to cognitive, emotional, and behavioral flexibility as underlying mechanisms of these beneficial effects (Harp et al., 2022).”

“Previous literature indicates that mindfulness programs lead to the experience of greater positivity in ambiguous situations (Harp et al., 2022) and may elevate positive affect in general (Schroevers & Brandsma, 2010), thereby initiating upward spirals of positivity (Garland et al., 2015).”

“Given the discrepancy between our results and those of Harp et al. (2022), who used the multifactorial Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire, it is possible that, when studying socio-cognitive processes, both mindfulness and gratitude could benefit from a multifactorial assessment.”

“Such low-intensity interventions may be sufficient to reduce immediate emotional discomfort or perceived stress but may be insufficient to produce more durable changes in well-being or broader multidimensional distress (Harp et al., 2022).”

“For example, prior work has shown that a mindfulness-based stress reduction (Harp et al., 2022) or cueing of reappraisal (Neta et al., 2023) results in a shift toward more positive/less negative judgments of ambiguity.”