Empirical explorations of mindfulness: Conceptual and methodological conundrums.
Open accessAbstract
This commentary reflects on the articles in this Special Issue. The appearance of this group of articles underscores the important idea that a major target of mindfulness practice is on emotion. Transformation in trait affect is a key goal of all contemplative traditions. This commentary addresses several key methodological and conceptual issues in the empirical study of mindfulness. The many ways in which the term "mindfulness" is used in the articles in this Special Issue are noted, and they include its reference to states, traits, and independent variables that are manipulated in an experimental context. How the term "mindfulness" is conceptualized and operationalized is crucial, and for progress to be made it is essential that we qualify the use of this term by reference to how it is being operationalized in each context. Other methodological issues are considered, such as the duration of training and how it should be measured, and the nature of control and comparison groups in studies of mindfulness-based interventions. Finally, the commentary ends with a consideration of the targets within emotion processing that are likely to be impacted by mindfulness. This collection of articles underscores the substantial progress that has occurred in the empirical study of mindfulness and it is a harbinger of a very promising future in this area.
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The study employed a double-blind, randomized controlled design.
“We employed a double-blind, randomized controlled design (Davidson, 2010;terburg, Morgan, & van honk, 2009).”
From Salivary testosterone and cortisol response in acute stress modulated by seven sessions of mindfulness meditation in young males (2024) · cites this paper as Davidson, 2010
The “Control and comparison groups” section recommends randomly assigning participants to comparable conditions in mindfulness-intervention studies. It does not say that the citing authors employed that design or address double-blinding, so it supports only the random-assignment rationale, not the stated study design. (LLM, conf=0.79)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredA series of studies used MBSR versus HEP to validate the active control in meditation.
“For example, a series of studies used MBsR vs. health enhancement Program (heP) to validate the active control in meditation (Davidson, 2010;Maccoon et al., 2012;2014;Rosenkranz et al., 2013).”
From Salivary testosterone and cortisol response in acute stress modulated by seven sessions of mindfulness meditation in young males (2024) · cites this paper as Davidson, 2010
The “Control and comparison groups” section argues for active comparison conditions matched to mindfulness interventions. It does not report a series of studies comparing MBSR with the Health Enhancement Program (HEP) or say that such studies validated that control. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredFor the past 10 years, more and more meditation studies have used longitudinal RCT design with active controls such as relaxation training, health education or enhancement programs, physical exercise, and cognitive tasks.
“consequently, for the past 10 years, more and more meditation studies have used longitudinal Rct design with active controls such as relaxation training, health education or enhancement programs, physical exercise, and cognitive tasks (Davidson, 2010;Maccoon et al., 2012;2014;Rosenkranz et al., 2013;terburg et al., 2009).”
From Salivary testosterone and cortisol response in acute stress modulated by seven sessions of mindfulness meditation in young males (2024) · cites this paper as Davidson, 2010
In “Control and comparison groups” (page unavailable), Davidson recommends random assignment to comparable interventions and longitudinal studies, but says such comparison conditions had been used very rarely. The paper does not establish an increasing trend over the preceding 10 years or identify the listed active controls. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredOne-time mindfulness inductions do not necessarily generalize to longer-term mindfulness training.
“However, one-time mindfulness inductions do not necessarily generalize to longer-term mindfulness training (Davidson, 2010).”
From Mindfulness Training Alters Emotional Memory Recall Compared to Active Controls: Support for an Emotional Information Processing Model of Mindfulness (2012) · cites this paper as Davidson, 2010
Mindfulness should be differentiated as a personal trait and as an ability acquired through practice.
“The current results imply that mindfulness should be differentiated as a personal trait [52] and as an ability that is acquired as a result of practice [53,54].”
The waitlist control has been intensively investigated in the meditation field.
“the waitlist control has been intensively investigated in the meditation field (Davidson, 2010;Maccoon, Maclean, Davidson, saron, & lutz, 2014;Maccoon et al., 2012;Rosenkranz et al., 2013;terburg et al., 2009).”
From Salivary testosterone and cortisol response in acute stress modulated by seven sessions of mindfulness meditation in young males (2024) · cites this paper as Davidson, 2010
The “Control and comparison groups” section discusses comparison conditions in meditation studies but does not mention waitlist controls or say they have been intensively investigated. Searches for “waitlist,” “waiting-list control,” and intensive investigation found no passage addressing that claim; page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredOther longitudinal RCTs showed no sustained attention differences between MBSR and HEP, comparable post-training stress-evoked cortisol responses, and equivalent reductions in self-reported psychological distress and physical symptoms.
“Other longitudinal Rcts also showed no sustained attention differences between MBsR and heP, MBsR and heP had comparable post-training stress-evoked cortisol responses, as well as equivalent reductions in self-reported psychological distress and physical symptoms (Davidson, 2010;Maccoon et al., 2012;2014;Rosenkranz et al., 2013).”
From Salivary testosterone and cortisol response in acute stress modulated by seven sessions of mindfulness meditation in young males (2024) · cites this paper as Davidson, 2010
The ‘Mindfulness: State, trait, intervention’ section mentions MBSR training, but does not compare it with HEP. Searches for HEP, sustained attention, stress-evoked cortisol, psychological distress, and physical symptoms found no passage in our copy reporting the claimed comparisons; page numbers were not available. (LLM, conf=0.75)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredLater rigorous RCT studies using an active control failed to replicate the positive results of meditation versus waitlist control.
“however, later rigorous Rct studies using an active control failed to replicate these results.”
From Salivary testosterone and cortisol response in acute stress modulated by seven sessions of mindfulness meditation in young males (2024) · cites this paper as Davidson, 2010
The “Control and comparison groups” section says that structurally comparable interventions had rarely been used and calls for more randomized comparisons. It does not report that later active-control RCTs failed to replicate positive results from waitlist-controlled studies; searches for active-control outcomes and replication found no such passage in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredNon-specific factors are frequently treated mainly as confounds in MBI mechanism research and as reasons to strengthen comparison conditions to isolate specific effects.
“Yet, non-specific factors are often viewed primarily as a confound in studies of MBI mechanisms (but see33–35) and used as motivation for increasing the rigor of comparison conditions to isolate the specific effects of MBIs28,36–38.”
From A common factors perspective on mindfulness-based interventions (2022) · cites this paper as [36]
Characteristics such as therapeutic alliance, group cohesion, and expectations are often viewed primarily as confounding variables rather than theory-based, potentially potent causal mechanisms in MBI research.
“Although some of these characteristics have been noted in relation to MBIs (for example, the role of expectancy21), they are often viewed primarily as confounding variables28,36 rather than theory-based, potentially potent causal mechanisms that should be studied and harnessed.”
From A common factors perspective on mindfulness-based interventions (2022) · cites this paper as [36]
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Mindfulness disposition and default-mode network connectivity in older adults
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Mindfulness Decouples the Relation Between Automatic Alcohol Motivation and Heavy Drinking
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The Effects of Different Stages of Mindfulness Meditation Training on Emotion Regulation
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Kinds and Dimensions of Mindfulness: Why it is Important to Distinguish Them
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Mindfulness buffers the impact of COVID-19 outbreak information on sleep duration.
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Tools of the trade: theory and method in mindfulness neuroscience
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Habitual Worrying and Benefits of Mindfulness
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Mindfulness and heart rate variability in individuals with high and low generalized anxiety symptoms
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A common factors perspective on mindfulness-based interventions
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Building personal resources through interventions: An integrative review
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Meditation and the Wandering Mind: A Theoretical Framework of Underlying Neurocognitive Mechanisms
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TRANCEFORMATIONS: HYPNOSIS IN BRAIN AND BODY
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The Importance of Self-Reflection and Awareness for Human Development in Hard Times
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Multi-Method, Multi-Theoretical, Multi-Level Research in the Learning Sciences
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Mindfulness and False-Memories: The Impact of Mindfulness Practice on the DRM Paradigm
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The MBSR Body Scan in Clinical Practice
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A MULTIVARIATE TWIN STUDY OF TRAIT MINDFULNESS, DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS, AND ANXIETY SENSITIVITY
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- Authors
- Davidson, R. J.
- Corresponding author
- Davidson, Richard J.
- ORCID
- Davidson, Richard J.
- Venue
- Emotion
- Published
- 2010-02
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 8-11
- ISSN
- 1528-3542 (ISSN-L)
- 1931-1516
- PMC
- PMC4485421
- OpenAlex
- W2114363889
- Cited by
- 361
- References
- 25
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 33 · 2016: 18 · 2015: 36 · 2014: 24 · 2013: 31 · 2012: 33
- FWCI
- 32.41
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Emotion (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (P01-AT004952)
- Fetzer Institute
- Mental Insight Foundation
- John W. Kluge Foundation
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
- Social Sciences › Health › Religion, Spirituality, and Psychology
- Keywords
- mindfulness, mindfulness-based interventions, emotion regulation, trait affect, contemplative traditions, emotional processing
- MeSH terms
- Emotions, Humans, Mental Processes, Models, Psychological, Psychological Theory, Psychophysiology, Psychotherapy, Meditation, Empirical Research
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