The microbiome extends to subepidermal compartments of normal skin
Open accessAbstract
Commensal microbes on the skin surface influence the behaviour of cells below the epidermis. We hypothesized that bacteria or their products exist below the surface epithelium and thus permit physical interaction between microbes and dermal cells. Here to test this hypothesis, we employed multiple independent detection techniques for bacteria including quantitative PCR, Gram staining, immunofluorescence and in situ hybridization. Bacteria were consistently detectable within the dermis and dermal adipose of normal human skin. Sequencing of DNA from dermis and dermal adipose tissue identified bacterial 16S ribosomal RNA reflective of a diverse and partially distinct microbial community in each skin compartment. These results show the microbiota extends within the dermis, therefore, enabling physical contact between bacteria and various cells below the basement membrane. These observations show that normal commensal bacterial communities directly communicate with the host in a tissue previously thought to be sterile.
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The interactive host-microbiome system extends into the living layers of the skin as commensal organisms or their products have been detected in the subcutis in healthy skin.
“This interactive host–microbiome system was thought to be restricted to the stratum corneum, but it has become evident that the system extends further into the living layers of the skin as commensal organisms or their products have been detected in the subcutis in healthy skin.7”
From The Innate Immune System in Acute and Chronic Wounds (2016) · cites this paper as [7]
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Cau, L., Williams, M. R., Butcher, A. M., Nakatsuji, T., Kavanaugh, J. S., Cheng, J. Y., Shafiq, F., Higbee, K., Hata, T. R., Horswill, A. R., et al. (2020) · Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2020.06.024 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Self-citationFrom Dysbiosis to Healthy Skin: Major Contributions of Cutibacterium acnes to Skin Homeostasis
Rozas, M., de Ruijter, A. B. P. H., Fábrega, M.-J., Zorgani, A., Güell, M., Paetzold, B., & Brillet, F. (2021) · Microorganisms · doi:10.3390/microorganisms9030628 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
“The outer layer (the stratum corneum), the appendages (sweat and sebaceous glands, hair follicles) [5], and the subepidermal compartments [6] are indeed colonized by a myriad of microorganisms, including, on the skin’s surface, eukaryotes (10%), viruses (30%), and bacteria (60%) (Figure 1A) [7].”
BackgroundLiving in Your Skin: Microbes, Molecules, and Mechanisms
Swaney, M. H., & Kalan, L. (2021) · Infection and Immunity · doi:10.1128/iai.00695-20 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
“the dermis, and adipose tissue (33), metabolite-mediated interactions occur not only at the skin surface but deep within skin layers, as well.”
BackgroundAntibiotic use during pregnancy: how bad is it?
Kuperman, A. A., & Koren, O. (2016) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12916-016-0636-0 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
“We are rapidly progressing towards understanding the role of bacteria in novel target organs traditionally considered “sterile”, including the central nervous system [10], blood [11], the lower airways [12], the sub-epidermis [13], and the fetoplacental unit [14].”
BackgroundStaphylococcus aureus Induces Increased Serine Protease Activity in Keratinocytes
Williams, M. R., Nakatsuji, T., Sanford, J. A., Vrbanac, A. F., & Gallo, R. L. (2016) · Journal of Investigative Dermatology · doi:10.1016/j.jid.2016.10.008 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
“…this interaction is important since bacteria not only reside on the surface where they influence superficial keratinocytes, but bacteria also penetrate below the stratum corneum and into the dermis (Nakatsuji et al., 2013) where some bacterial species have been shown to influence immune f nction.”
BackgroundSelf-citationSanford, J. A., Zhang, L.-J., Williams, M. R., Gangoiti, J. A., Huang, C.-M., & Gallo, R. L. (2016) · Science Immunology · doi:10.1126/sciimmunol.aah4609 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
“acnes and can provide the lipid-rich and hypoxic environment necessary for the production of SCFAs (25).”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe role of the skin microbiome in atopic dermatitis
Nakatsuji, T., & Gallo, R. L. (2018) · Annals of Allergy Asthma & Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.anai.2018.12.003 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Self-citationInteractions between host factors and the skin microbiome
SanMiguel, A. J., & Grice, E. A. (2014) · Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences · doi:10.1007/s00018-014-1812-z · Cited by 168 · see citing works
“Although the vast majority of these microorganisms inhabit the stratum corneum, recent evidence has shown that bacterial species may also reside within deeper layers of the epidermis and dermis [35, 53].”
The Microbiome and Food Allergy
Iweala, O. I., & Nagler‐Anderson, C. (2019) · Annual Review of Immunology · doi:10.1146/annurev-immunol-042718-041621 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
Review of human hand microbiome research
Edmonds-Wilson, S. L., Nurinova, N. I., Zapka, C. A., Fierer, N., & Wilson, M. (2015) · Journal of Dermatological Science · doi:10.1016/j.jdermsci.2015.07.006 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
“[28] found bacteria in sub-epidermal compartments of palm skin to have distinct bacterial communities compared to those found on exposed areas of skin.”
BackgroundMethodKell, D. B., & Pretorius, E. (2015) · Integrative Biology · doi:10.1039/c5ib00158g · Cited by 160 · see citing works
“541 The considerable evidence for a dormant CNS microbiome was discussed earlier, and we here note the presence in the brain of TLR4 and its major role in neurodegeneration, 542 consistent with the idea that waking up dormant microbes can stimulate overt neurodegenerative disease.”
Microbial biofilms and the human skin microbiome
Brandwein, M., Steinberg, D., & Meshner, S. (2016) · npj Biofilms and Microbiomes · doi:10.1038/s41522-016-0004-z · Cited by 157 · see citing works
“Additionally, community membership has been shown to be similar throughout the epidermal and dermal layers, exhibiting greater beta-diversity than alpha-diversity.(48,49) These significant observations have shattered the historical paradigm of the skin serving as an almost impermeable barrier for bacterial invasion, w…”
BackgroundMicrobiota at the crossroads of autoimmunity
Shamriz, O., Mizrahi, H., Werbner, M., Shoenfeld, Y., Avni, O., & Koren, O. (2016) · Autoimmunity Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.autrev.2016.07.012 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
“Althoughmost of these bacteria inhabit the upper part of the epidermis, the stratum corneum, bacteriamay also reside within deeper layers of the skin [76,77].”
BackgroundThe Skin Microbiome: A Focus on Pathogens and Their Association with Skin Disease
Findley, K., & Grice, E. A. (2014) · PLoS Pathogens · doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1004436 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
“Spatially, the skin microbiota may extend to subepidermal compartments [3].”
BackgroundProbiotics in Cosmetic and Personal Care Products: Trends and Challenges
Puebla-Barragan, S., & Reid, G. (2021) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules26051249 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
“There is no single healthy skin microbiome, so what would it take to ”balance” the one that a given individual possessed? Furthermore, the skin has many layers, with microbes being detected in the dermis, adipose, follicle, epidermis [8].”
BackgroundWall Teichoic Acid in Staphylococcus aureus Host Interaction
van Dalen, R., Peschel, A., & van Sorge, N. M. (2020) · Trends in Microbiology · doi:10.1016/j.tim.2020.05.017 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
The Skin Microbiome: Is It Affected by UV-induced Immune Suppression?
Patra, V., Byrne, S. N., & Wolf, P. (2016) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2016.01235 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
“Kripke et al. (1977) first discovered that UV-R exposure and immune suppression were linked to UV-induced carcinogenesis (Schwarz, 2010).”
BackgroundMicrobial endocrinology: Host-bacteria communication within the gut microbiome
Sandrini, S., Aldriwesh, M., Alruways, M., & Freestone, P. (2015) · Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1530/joe-14-0615 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
“Although the environmental conditions to which skin is exposed can vary considerably, the composition of the skin microbiomes tends to be relatively stable (Nakatsuji et al. 2013), which suggests that the skin through some mechanism actively regulates the microflora that populate it.”
BackgroundSkin Microbiome and its Interplay with the Environment
Callewaert, C., Helffer, K. R., & Lebaron, P. (2020) · American Journal of Clinical Dermatology · doi:10.1007/s40257-020-00551-x · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Rebollar, E. A., Antwis, R. E., Becker, M. H., Belden, L. K., Bletz, M. C., Brucker, R. M., Harrison, X. A., Hughey, M. C., Kueneman, J. G., Loudon, A. H., et al. (2016) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2016.00068 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
“Warmer temperatures can increase the skin sloughing frequency of anurans, thus reducing the abundance of bacteria on the skin through frequent disturbance (Meyer et al., 2012; Ohmer et al., 2014).”
BackgroundWang, Z., Mascarenhas, N., Eckmann, L., Miyamoto, Y., Sun, X., Kawakami, T., & Nardo, A. D. (2016) · Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2016.09.019 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
“This contact allows normal commensal bacteria to directly communicate with dermal cells in a site previously thought to be sterile.(11) The gram-positive Actinobacteria phylum constitutes the majority of the skin microbiota.”
Effects of sampling strategy and DNA extraction on human skin microbiome investigations
Bjerre, R. D., Hugerth, L. W., Boulund, F., Seifert, M., Johansen, J. D., & Engstrand, L. G. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-53599-z · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Oral and Topical Probiotics and Postbiotics in Skincare and Dermatological Therapy: A Concise Review
Almeida, C. V. D., Antiga, E., & Lulli, M. (2023) · Microorganisms · doi:10.3390/microorganisms11061420 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
“Microorganisms, however, occupy a wide range of skin niches and in addition to the external interfollicular epithelial surface, they can also be found on the skin appendage surface and below the basement membrane [30,31].”
BackgroundGrice, E. A. (2015) · Genome Research · doi:10.1101/gr.191320.115 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
“, sebaceous and sweat glands), an innovative approach demonstrated that microbial products are present in subepidermal compartments of the dermis and adipose tissue (Nakatsuji et al. 2013).”
BackgroundDermal White Adipose Tissue: A Newly Recognized Layer of Skin Innate Defense
Chen, S., Zhang, L., & Gallo, R. L. (2019) · Journal of Investigative Dermatology · doi:10.1016/j.jid.2018.12.031 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
“New insight into the biological significance of reactive adipogenesis was gained when 16s rRNA sequencing technologies and histopathologic staining showed that bacteria often enter the reticular dermis and subcutaneous compartments of normal human skin (Nakatsuji et al., 2013).”
BackgroundSelf-citationImpaired Intestinal Barrier and Tissue Bacteria: Pathomechanisms for Metabolic Diseases
Massier, L., Blüher, M., Kovacs, P. L., & Chakaroun, R. (2021) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2021.616506 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Tong, P. L., Roediger, B., Kolesnikoff, N., Biro, M., Tay, S. S., Jain, R., Shaw, L. E., Grimbaldeston, M. A., & Weninger, W. (2014) · Journal of Investigative Dermatology · doi:10.1038/jid.2014.289 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
“Thus, with MPM, we can detect structural features such as epidermal thickness and topography of the DEJ in situ without tissue processing or counter-staining to generate 3D tissue stacks of intact murine skin.”
InfluentialMicrobiota, immunoregulatory old friends and psychiatric disorders
Rook, G. A. W., Raison, C. L., & Lowry, C. A. (2014) · Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-0897-4_15 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Staphylococcus epidermidis and Other Coagulase-Negative Staphylococci
Rupp, M. E., & Fey, P. D. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-1-4557-4801-3.00197-1 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Propionibacterium in Shoulder Arthroplasty
Hsu, J. E., Bumgarner, R. E., & Matsen, F. A. (2016) · Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery · doi:10.2106/jbjs.15.00568 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Skin immunity: dissecting the complex biology of our body's outer barrier
Zhang, C., Merana, G. R., Harris-Tryon, T. A., & Scharschmidt, T. C. (2022) · Mucosal Immunology · doi:10.1038/s41385-022-00505-y · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Immune-Microbiota Interactions: Dysbiosis as a Global Health Issue
Logan, A. C., Jacka, F. N., & Prescott, S. L. (2016) · Current Allergy and Asthma Reports · doi:10.1007/s11882-015-0590-5 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Universal Dermal Microbiome in Human Skin
Bay, L., Barnes, C. J., Fritz, B. G., Thorsen, J., Restrup, M. E. M., Rasmussen, L., Sørensen, J. K., Hesselvig, A. B., Odgaard, A., Hansen, A. J., et al. (2020) · mBio · doi:10.1128/mbio.02945-19 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
“Few investigations have examined the distribution of the microbiota in full-thickness skin biopsy specimens (9) or within subepidermal compartments (2) A complete characterization of the composition and distribution of the entire skin microbiota (1) within various cutaneous compartments and structures is essential in…”
Williams, M. R., Cau, L., Wang, Y., Kaul, D., Sanford, J. A., Zaramela, L. S., Khalil, S., Butcher, A. M., Zengler, K., Horswill, A. R., et al. (2020) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2020.02.021 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Self-citationThe diversity and host interactions of Propionibacterium acnes bacteriophages on human skin
Liu, J., Yan, R., Zhong, Q., Ngo, S., Bangayan, N. J., Nguyen, L., Lui, T., Liu, M., Erfe, M. C. B., Craft, N. A., et al. (2015) · The ISME Journal · doi:10.1038/ismej.2015.47 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
“Although the skin bacterial community has been studied by several groups (Gao et al., 2007; Costello et al., 2009; Grice et al., 2009; Kong et al., 2012; The Human Microbiome Project Consortium, 2012; Blaser et al., 2013; Fitz-Gibbon et al., 2013; Nakatsuji et al., 2013), relatively few studies have characterized the…”
BackgroundInfluentialC-Type Lectin Receptors in Host Defense Against Bacterial Pathogens
Mnich, M. E., van Dalen, R., & van Sorge, N. M. (2020) · Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fcimb.2020.00309 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
“Immune cells of the skin constantly interact with microbes and their products, even deeper within the tissue, without causing infection or inflammation (Nakatsuji et al., 2013).”
BackgroundSkin microbiome transplantation and manipulation: Current state of the art
Callewaert, C., Knödlseder, N., Karoglan, A., Güell, M., & Paetzold, B. (2021) · Computational and Structural Biotechnology Journal · doi:10.1016/j.csbj.2021.01.001 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
“Additionally, Nakatsuji et al found higher amounts of bacterial DNA in hair follicles than on skin epidermis [37,38].”
BackgroundThe Ubiquitous Human Skin Commensal Staphylococcus hominis Protects against Opportunistic Pathogens
Severn, M. M., Williams, M. R., Shahbandi, A., Bunch, Z. L., Lyon, L. M., Nguyen, A., Zaramela, L. S., Todd, D. A., Zengler, K., Cech, N. B., et al. (2022) · mBio · doi:10.1128/mbio.00930-22 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Self-citationHoffmann, A. R., Proctor, L. M., Surette, M. G., & Suchodolski, J. S. (2015) · Veterinary Pathology · doi:10.1177/0300985815595517 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
“By utilizing 16 S rRNA sequencing, Gram staining, and FISH analysis, bacterial DNA and antigen were detected within the dermis and subcutaneous tissues in humans.(91) However, due to the methods used in this study, it was not possible to conclude whether live bacteria inhabit these regions.”
MethodHoward, B. W., Bascom, C. C., Hu, P., Binder, R. L., Fadayel, G. M., Huggins, T. G., Jarrold, B. B., Osborne, R., Rocchetta, H. L., Swift, D. D., et al. (2021) · Journal of Investigative Dermatology · doi:10.1016/j.jid.2021.11.029 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
“DISCUSSION Human skin has the most diverse microbiome of all human tissues, resulting from its ready exposure to the environment, constantly changing conditions, and the variety of niches available for microbial colonization (Alexeyev, 2013; Blaser et al., 2013; Chen and Tsao, 2013; Christensen and Brüggemann, 2014; F…”
BackgroundThe gut-skin axis: a bi-directional, microbiota-driven relationship with therapeutic potential
Jimenez-Sanchez, M., Celiberto, L. S., Yang, H., Sham, H. P., & Vallance, B. A. (2025) · Gut Microbes · doi:10.1080/19490976.2025.2473524 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
The Association of the Skin Microbiota With Health, Immunity, and Disease
Egert, M., Simmering, R., & Riedel, C. U. (2017) · Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1002/cpt.698 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Melanoma-related changes in skin microbiome
Mrázek, J., Mekadim, C., Kučerová, P., Švejstil, R., Salmonová, H. Š., Vlasáková, J., Tarasová, R., Čížková, J., & Červinková, M. (2018) · Folia Microbiologica · doi:10.1007/s12223-018-00670-3 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Mechanisms of microbe-immune system dialogue within the skin
Lunjani, N., Ahearn-Ford, S., Dube, F. S., Hlela, C., & O’Mahony, L. (2021) · Genes and Immunity · doi:10.1038/s41435-021-00133-9 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
“DNA from Proteobacteria, including Burkholderiales and Pseudomonadales, as well as Actinobacteria, have been detected in the subepidermal compartments [20].”
BackgroundPereira, S. G., Moura, J., Carvalho, E., & Empadinhas, N. (2017) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2017.01791 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
“Interestingly, bacteria, or at least bacterial genes, have also been identified in the subepidermal layers of the skin (Nakatsuji et al., 2013) reinforcing the close interaction of the skin microbiota with cells of the inner layers of the skin and their anticipated mutual regulation.”
BackgroundActivation of Nrf2 in keratinocytes causes chloracne (MADISH)-like skin disease in mice
Schäfer, M., Willrodt, A., Kurinna, S., Link, A. S., Farwanah, H., Geusau, A., Gruber, F., Sorg, O., Huebner, A. J., Roop, D. R., et al. (2014) · EMBO Molecular Medicine · doi:10.1002/emmm.201303281 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Effects of cosmetics on the skin microbiome of facial cheeks with different hydration levels
Lee, H. J., Jeong, S. E., Lee, S., Kim, S., Han, H., & Jeon, C. O. (2017) · MicrobiologyOpen · doi:10.1002/mbo3.557 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
“…and ***p < 0.001 Betaproteobacteria possibly including the genus Ralstonia was prominent in subepidermal compartments containing high lipid content (Nakatsuji et al., 2013), the dominance of Ralstonia in the human skin microbiome was not reported until now, suggesting that the dominance of…”
BackgroundInfluentialStaphylococcus aureus and the Cutaneous Microbiota Biofilms in the Pathogenesis of Atopic Dermatitis
Domenico, E. G. D., Cavallo, I., Capitanio, B., Ascenzioni, F., Pimpinelli, F., Morrone, A., & Ensoli, F. (2019) · Microorganisms · doi:10.3390/microorganisms7090301 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Metabolic Stress Drives Keratinocyte Defenses against Staphylococcus aureus Infection
Wickersham, M., Wachtel, S., Lung, T. W. F., Soong, G., Jacquet, R., Richardson, A. R., Parker, D., & Prince, A. S. (2017) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2017.02.055 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
“, 2016), intercalation within the layers of the epidermis (Nakatsuji et al., 2013), and intracellular persistence within keratinocytes (Soong et al.”
BackgroundBerditsch, M., Jäger, T., Strempel, N., Schwartz, T., Overhage, J., & Ulrich, A. S. (2015) · Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy · doi:10.1128/aac.00682-15 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
“aeruginosa is a part of normal human skin microbiota (67).”
BackgroundAskarian, F., Ajayi, C., Hanssen, A.-M., van Sorge, N. M., Pettersen, I., Diep, D. B., Ericson, J. U., & Johannessen, M. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep22134 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Recentrifuge: Robust comparative analysis and contamination removal for metagenomics
Martí, J. M. (2019) · PLoS Computational Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1006967 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Deodorants and antiperspirants affect the axillary bacterial community
Callewaert, C., Hutapea, P. P., de Wiele, T. V., & Boon, N. (2014) · Archives of Dermatological Research · doi:10.1007/s00403-014-1487-1 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
“Research has shown that bacteria are present in the dermis and the dermal adipose of the human skin [25].”
BackgroundMicrobiome: Role in Inflammatory Skin Diseases
Zhang, X.-E., Zheng, P., Ye, S., Ma, X., Liu, E., Pang, Y.-B., He, Q., Zhang, Y., Li, W.-Q., Zeng, J., et al. (2024) · Journal of Inflammation Research · doi:10.2147/jir.s441100 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
“18 A more comprehensive understanding of the human skin microbiome and its interactions with the innate and adaptive immune systems will enhance our comprehension of these diseases and provide opportunities for new treatment modalities.”
Lunjani, N., Hlela, C., & O’Mahony, L. (2019) · Current Opinion in Allergy & Clinical Immunology · doi:10.1097/aci.0000000000000542 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
“Below the epidermis are several layers that form part of the skin barrier, profoundly affecting function and also harboring microbes [21].”
BackgroundRole of the skin microbiome in atopic dermatitis
Salava, A., & Lauerma, A. (2014) · Clinical and Translational Allergy · doi:10.1186/2045-7022-4-33 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
“There have also been reports of detection of 16S ribosomal RNA in deep skin layers, indicating that the microbiome could extend to subepidermal compartments of normal skin [13].”
BackgroundSkin-Associated B Cells in Health and Inflammation
Debes, G. F., & McGettigan, S. E. (2019) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.1801211 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Environmental risk factors and epigenetic alternations in psoriasis
Roszkiewicz, M., Dopytalska, K., Szymańska, E., Jakimiuk, A. J., & Walecka, I. (2019) · Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.26444/aaem/112107 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
“Staphylococcus and Streptococcus are most commonly seen, even in all layers of the skin [10, 59].”
BackgroundLangan, E. A., Künstner, A., Miodovnik, M., Zillikens, D., Thaçi, D., Baines, J. F., Ibrahim, S. M., Solbach, W., & Knobloch, J. K. ‐. (2019) · British Journal of Dermatology · doi:10.1111/bjd.17989 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Bitschar, K., Wolz, C., Krismer, B., Peschel, A., & Schittek, B. (2017) · Journal of Dermatological Science · doi:10.1016/j.jdermsci.2017.06.003 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
“Indeed, skin commensals were shown to penetrate the skin and reside within the dermis and the dermal adipose tissue of healthy human skin where they can directly and physically interact with host immune cells and influence the innate and adaptive immune system [46].”
BackgroundScalp bacterial shift in Alopecia areata
Pinto, D., Sorbellini, E., Marzani, B., Rucco, M., Giuliani, G., & Rinaldi, F. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0215206 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Revealing the secret life of skin ‐ with the microbiome you never walk alone
Sfriso, R., Egert, M., Gempeler, M., Voegeli, R., & Campiche, R. (2019) · International Journal of Cosmetic Science · doi:10.1111/ics.12594 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
“The human skin is one of the largest organs of the body corresponding to a surface of 2 m(2) which extends to approximately 25 m(2) considering the plethora of hair follicles and sweat ducts [1,2].”
BackgroundResultHoffmann, A. R. (2017) · Veterinary Dermatology · doi:10.1111/vde.12408 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Skin Microbiome as Years Go By
Luna, P. C. (2020) · American Journal of Clinical Dermatology · doi:10.1007/s40257-020-00549-5 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
The role of the skin microbiome in wound healing
Yang, Y., Huang, J., Zeng, A., Long, X., Yu, N., & Wang, X. (2023) · Burns & Trauma · doi:10.1093/burnst/tkad059 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
“…of Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria and a lower abundance of Firmicutes were observed in facial and palm skin samples from 6 healthy individuals [18], and Clostridiales and Bacteroidetes were found to be enriched in deep skin biopsies from 16 patients with noninflammatory skin diseases [20].”
Background
- Authors
- Nakatsuji, T., Chiang, H.-I., Jiang, S. B., Nagarajan, H., Zengler, K., & Gallo, R. L.
- Affiliations
- University of California San Diego (US)
- National Chung Hsing University (TW)
- Corresponding author
- Gallo, Richard L.
- Venue
- Nature Communications
- Published
- 2013-02-05
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 1431-1431
- ISSN
- 2041-1723 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3655727
- OpenAlex
- W2099780103
- Cited by
- 450
- References
- 45
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 34 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 46 · 2021: 49 · 2020: 50 · 2019: 39 · 2018: 33 · 2017: 30 · 2016: 47 · 2015: 28 · 2014: 25 · 2013: 5
- FWCI
- 41.08
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Nature Communications (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (R01AI052453, R56AI083358, R01AI083358, R37AI052453)
- National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (R01AR052728)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Dermatology › Dermatology and Skin Diseases
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Microbial Community Ecology and Physiology
- Keywords
- skin microbiome, dermis, commensal bacteria, bacterial 16S rRNA, bacterial diversity, basement membrane, host-microbe interactions, skin immune system
- MeSH terms
- Aged, Bacteria, DNA, Bacterial, Epidermis, Face, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, RNA, Ribosomal, 16S, In Situ Hybridization, Sequence Analysis, DNA, Metagenome
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