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Cited by 593Evolutionary Psychology and Human BehaviorPrimate Behavior and EcologyNeurogenesis and neuroplasticity mechanisms

Metabolic costs and evolutionary implications of human brain development

Open access
Kuzawa, Christopher W., Chugani, Harry T., Grossman, Lawrence I., Lipovich, Leonard, Muzik, Otto, Hof, Patrick R., Wildman, Derek E., Sherwood, Chet C. +2 more·2014·Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
DOI 10.1073/pnas.1323099111PMC PMC4246958
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Abstract

The high energetic costs of human brain development have been hypothesized to explain distinctive human traits, including exceptionally slow and protracted preadult growth. Although widely assumed to constrain life-history evolution, the metabolic requirements of the growing human brain are unknown. We combined previously collected PET and MRI data to calculate the human brain's glucose use from birth to adulthood, which we compare with body growth rate. We evaluate the strength of brain-body metabolic trade-offs using the ratios of brain glucose uptake to the body's resting metabolic rate (RMR) and daily energy requirements (DER) expressed in glucose-gram equivalents (glucosermr% and glucoseder%). We find that glucosermr% and glucoseder% do not peak at birth (52.5% and 59.8% of RMR, or 35.4% and 38.7% of DER, for males and females, respectively), when relative brain size is largest, but rather in childhood (66.3% and 65.0% of RMR and 43.3% and 43.8% of DER). Body-weight growth (dw/dt) and both glucosermr% and glucoseder% are strongly, inversely related: soon after birth, increases in brain glucose demand are accompanied by proportionate decreases in dw/dt. Ages of peak brain glucose demand and lowest dw/dt co-occur and subsequent developmental declines in brain metabolism are matched by proportionate increases in dw/dt until puberty. The finding that human brain glucose demands peak during childhood, and evidence that brain metabolism and body growth rate covary inversely across development, support the hypothesis that the high costs of human brain development require compensatory slowing of body growth rate.

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Registry

Crossref · 10.1073/pnas.1323099111

Cites

78 of 78 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

12 of 59 cited sources checked · 6 supported · 1 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Aerobic glycolysis plays an important role in support of synaptic proliferation and growth.

    “pointing to an important role of aerobic glycolysis in support of synaptic proliferation and growth (28,30).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [28] 28. Goyal MS, Hawrylycz M, Miller JA, Snyder AZ, Raichle ME (2014) Aerobic glycolysis in the human brain is associated with development and neotenous gene expression. Cell Metab 19(1):49-57. source
    • cites [30] 30. Bauernfeind AL, et al. (2014) Aerobic glycolysis in the primate brain: Reconsidering the implications for growth and maintenance. Brain Struct Funct 219(4):1149-1167. source
  • Interpretationreasoning

    The shift in the social context of human child rearing, occurring together with a protracted postnatal development of cortical connectivity, likely created new opportunities for imitative learning and cumulative, intergenerational development of cultural traditions to become central features of the human adaptive complex.

    “This shift in the social context of human child rearing, occurring together with a protracted postnatal development of cortical connectivity (54,55), likely created new opportunities for imitative learning and cumulative, intergenerational development of cultural traditions to become central features of the human adaptive complex (56,57).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [54] 54. Miller DJ, et al. (2012) Prolonged myelination in human neocortical evolution. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 109(41):16480-16485. source
    • cites [55] 55. Bufill E, Agustí J, Blesa R (2011) Human neoteny revisited: The case of synaptic plas- ticity. Am J Hum Biol 23(6):729-739. source
    • cites [56] 56. Boyd R, Richerson PJ, Henrich J (2011) The cultural niche: Why social learning is es- sential for human adaptation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108(Suppl 2):10918-10925. source

      Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [57] 57. Hill K, Barton M, Hurtado AM (2009) The emergence of human uniqueness: Charac- ters underlying behavioral modernity. Evol Anthropol 18(5):187-200. source
  • Premisecitation

    Childhood energetics and substrate availability play an important role in diabetes development.

    “suggesting an important role for childhood energetics and substrate availability in diabetes development (62,63).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [62] 62. Ong KK (2006) Size at birth, postnatal growth and risk of obesity. Horm Res 65:(Suppl 3):65-69. source
    • cites [63] 63. Norris SA, et al.; COHORTS Group (2012) Size at birth, weight gain in infancy and childhood, and adult diabetes risk in five low-or middle-income country birth co- horts. Diabetes Care 35(1):72-79. source

      The Conclusions (no page provided) link lower birth weight and accelerated weight gain after 48 months with adult glucose intolerance, supporting a role for early growth patterns in diabetes risk. The paper did not measure childhood energetics or substrate availability directly, and it found no increased glucose-intolerance risk from greater infant or early-childhood weight gain. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Findingcitation

    Peak brain glucose uptake occurs when the energetic buffer of body fat stores are near their lifetime nadir.

    “and when the energetic buffer of body fat stores are near their lifetime nadir (18).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [18] 18. Kuzawa CW (1998) Adipose tissue in human infancy and childhood: An evolutionary perspective. Am J Phys Anthropol 107(Suppl 27):177-209. source
  • Findingown data

    The relationships between age changes in brain glucose demands and body-weight growth rate are particularly striking in males, who maintain inverse linear trends despite threefold changes in brain glucose demand and body growth rate between 6 mo and 13 y of age.

    “The relationships that we document between age changes in brain glucose demands and body-weight growth rate are particularly striking in males, who maintain these inverse linear trends despite experiencing threefold changes in brain glucose demand and body growth rate between 6 mo and 13 y of age.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 12
  • May combine two claims. 20
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Fetal undernutrition or small birth size interacts with childhood weight gain as predictors of diabetes risk.

    “Studies report interactions between fetal undernutrition or small birth size and childhood weight gain as predictors of diabetes risk”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [62] 62. Ong KK (2006) Size at birth, postnatal growth and risk of obesity. Horm Res 65:(Suppl 3):65-69. source
    • cites [63] 63. Norris SA, et al.; COHORTS Group (2012) Size at birth, weight gain in infancy and childhood, and adult diabetes risk in five low-or middle-income country birth co- horts. Diabetes Care 35(1):72-79. source

      The Results section, “SGA and the associations of weight gain with outcomes” (page unavailable), directly tested whether small-for-gestational-age status or birth weight interacted with conditional weight gain. It found no significant interactions at any age. The paper reports birth weight and later weight gain as separate risk factors, not interacting predictors. (LLM, conf=0.91)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Rudimentary hunting and gathering economies appeared with the emergence of the genus Homo and are believed to have been important in supporting early brain expansion.

    “Rudimentary hunting and gathering economies appeared with the emergence of the genus Homo and are believed to have been important in supporting early brain expansion (49)(50)(51).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [49] 49. Bunn H (2006) Meat made us human. Evolution of the Human Diet: The Known, the Unknown, and the Unknowable, ed Unger P (Oxford Univ Press, New York), pp 191-211. source
    • cites [50] 50. Plummer T (2004) Flaked stones and old bones: Biological and cultural evolution at the dawn of technology. Am J Phys Anthropol 125(Suppl 39):118-164. source
    • cites [51] 51. Pobiner BL, Rogers MJ, Monahan CM, Harris JW (2008) New evidence for hominin carcass processing strategies at 1.5 Ma, Koobi Fora, Kenya. J Hum Evol 55(1):103-130. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Data on dental eruption point to coevolution between brain expansion and maturational delay, with a fully modern pattern of delayed physical growth not emerging until the origin of anatomically modern humans.

    “Data on dental eruption point to coevolution between brain expansion and maturational delay (45,46), with a fully modern pattern of delayed physical growth not emerging until the origin of anatomically modern humans (47,48).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [45] 45. Dean MC, Lucas VS (2009) Dental and skeletal growth in early fossil hominins. Ann Hum Biol 36(5):545-561. source
    • cites [46] 46. Dean C, et al. (2001) Growth processes in teeth distinguish modern humans from Homo erectus and earlier hominins. Nature 414(6864):628-631. source
    • cites [47] 47. Smith TM, et al. (2007) Earliest evidence of modern human life history in North African early Homo sapiens. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104(15):6128-6133. source

      The Abstract identifies a 160,000-year-old early H. sapiens juvenile as the oldest-known Homo specimen with dental development more similar to modern humans than to earlier Homo. But it explicitly says when the prolonged modern human developmental pattern originated is unknown. The paper therefore supports evidence of delayed development in early H. sapiens, not the categorical claim that it first emerged with anatomically modern humans. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [48] 48. Smith TM, et al. (2010) Dental evidence for ontogenetic differences between modern humans and Neanderthals. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107(49):20923-20928. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Glucose uptake outpaces oxygen use in the human brain, and this imbalance also peaks at the age of greatest glucose uptake in childhood.

    “Recent work shows that glucose uptake outpaces oxygen use in the human brain, and that this imbalance also peaks at the age of greatest glucose uptake in childhood”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [28] 28. Goyal MS, Hawrylycz M, Miller JA, Snyder AZ, Raichle ME (2014) Aerobic glycolysis in the human brain is associated with development and neotenous gene expression. Cell Metab 19(1):49-57. source
    • cites [30] 30. Bauernfeind AL, et al. (2014) Aerobic glycolysis in the primate brain: Reconsidering the implications for growth and maintenance. Brain Struct Funct 219(4):1149-1167. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Peak brain glucose uptake during childhood reflects neuronal plasticity in the cerebral cortex, which involves overproliferation of energetically costly dendritic arbors and synapses before activity-dependent pruning.

    “These patterns suggest that peak brain glucose uptake during childhood reflects neuronal plasticity in the cerebral cortex (32), which involves overproliferation of energetically costly dendritic arbors and synapses before activity-dependent pruning (33,34).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [32] 32. Chugani HT, Phelps ME, Mazziotta JC (1987) Positron emission tomography study of human brain functional development. Ann Neurol 22(4):487-497. source
    • cites [33] 33. Petanjek Z, et al. (2011) Extraordinary neoteny of synaptic spines in the human pre- frontal cortex. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108(32):13281-13286. source

      The opening section (p. 1) describes initially overproduced cortical synapses followed by activity-dependent selective elimination, and reports that prefrontal dendritic spine density in childhood is two to three times adult levels. It does not establish overproliferation of dendritic arbors or describe these structures as energetically costly. The glucose-uptake interpretation is attached to citation (32), not to this source's citation (33 or 34). (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [34] 34. Huttenlocher PR (1979) Synaptic density in human frontal cortex -Developmental changes and effects of aging. Brain Res 163(2):195-205. source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Humans and other primates have reduced TEEs for their body sizes, despite having BMRs consistent with those of other mammals.

    “Pontzer et al. (43) recently showed that humans and other primates have reduced TEEs for their body sizes, despite having basal metabolic rates (BMRs) consistent with those of other mammals.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [43] 43. Pontzer H, et al. (2014) Primate energy expenditure and life history. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 111(4):1433-1437. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The analyses are based on cross-sectional brain and body-weight data, which pool fast- and slow-maturing individuals; this pooling can attenuate the apparent magnitude of the pubertal growth spurt and obscure variable timings of its onset.

    “An additional limitation is that our analyses are based on cross-sectional brain and body-weight data, which pool fast-and slow-maturing individuals; this pooling can attenuate the apparent magnitude of the pubertal growth spurt while also obscuring the variable timings of its onset (65).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [65] 65. Tanner JM, Whitehouse RH (1976) Clinical longitudinal standards for height, weight, height velocity, weight velocity, and stages of puberty. Arch Dis Child 51(3):170-179. source

      The paper’s Abstract (page not supplied) says cross-sectional standards can mislead because some children have adolescent growth spurts early and others late, supporting the concern that pooling obscures individual timing. It also says the difference from longitudinal standards is especially marked for growth velocity, but does not state that pooling attenuates the apparent magnitude of the spurt. The citing authors’ description of their own brain and body-weight data is not a finding attributed to this source. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Normative data on developmental changes in insulin sensitivity during child development are lacking.

    “Although normative data on developmental changes in insulin sensitivity during child development are lacking (64)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [64] 64. Levy-Marchal C, et al.; ESPE-LWPES-ISPAD-APPES-APEG-SLEP-JSPE; Insulin Resistance in Children Consensus Conference Group (2010) Insulin resistance in children: Con- sensus, perspective, and future directions. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95(12):5189-5198. source

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    These peak values represent 1.88- and 1.82-times the daily glucose use of the brain in adulthood in males and females, respectively.

    “These values represent 1.88-and 1.82-times the daily glucose use of the brain in adulthood”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Very similar results were obtained when brain glucose was evaluated in relation to DER.

    “Very similar results were obtained when brain glucose was evaluated in relation to DER”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The childhood peak in brain glucose uptake is greatest in the cerebrum, and less pronounced in the brainstem and cerebellum.

    “The childhood peak in brain glucose uptake is greatest in the cerebrum, and less pronounced in the brainstem and cerebellum (32).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [32] 32. Chugani HT, Phelps ME, Mazziotta JC (1987) Positron emission tomography study of human brain functional development. Ann Neurol 22(4):487-497. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Starting at 6 mo, each increase in glucose rmr% is matched by a proportionate decrease in dw/dt, with peak glucose rmr% and the trough of dw/dt co-occurring.

    “Starting at 6 mo, each increase in glucose rmr% is matched by a proportionate decrease in dw/dt, with peak glucose rmr% and the trough of dw/dt cooccurring.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    When brain glucose uptake peaks in childhood, the glucose used by the brain comprises the equivalent of 66% of the body's RMR and roughly 43% of total expenditure.

    “when the glucose used by the brain comprises the equivalent of 66% of the body's RMR, and roughly 43% of total expenditure.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In males and females, respectively, total brain glucose uptake is the equivalent of 52.5% and 59.8% of RMR at birth.

    “In males and females, respectively, total brain glucose uptake is the equivalent of 52.5% and 59.8% of RMR at birth”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Adult glucose der% was 10.9% and 15.0% in males and females, respectively.

    “Adult glucose rmr% was 19.1% and 24.0% whereas glucose der% was 10.9% and 15.0% in males and females, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In males and females, respectively, glucose der% rose to peak levels of 43.3% at 3.8 y (males) and 43.8% at 4 y (females).

    “before rising to peak levels of 43.3% at 3.8 y (males) and 43.8% at 4 y (females)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Both glucose rmr% and glucose der% decline in the first half-year as a fast but decelerating pace of body growth established in utero initially outpaces postnatal increases in brain metabolism.

    “Both glucose rmr% and glucose der% decline in the first halfyear as a fast but decelerating pace of body growth established in utero initially outpaces postnatal increases in brain metabolism.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A shift to calorically dense and easily digested foods, and greater food sharing among social groups, would have increased the nutritional quality and stability of the diet.

    “A shift to calorically dense and easily digested foods, and greater food sharing among social groups, would have increased the nutritional quality and stability of the diet (14,15,20).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [14] 14. Foley RA, Lee PC (1991) Ecology and energetics of encephalization in hominid evo- lution. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 334(1270):223-231, discussion 232. source
    • cites [15] 15. Leonard WR, Robertson ML (1992) Nutritional requirements and human evolution: A bioenergetics model. Am J Hum Biol 4(2):179-195. source
    • cites [20] 20. Aiello LC, Wheeler P (1995) The expensive-tissue hypothesis: The brain and the di- gestive system in human and primate evolution. Curr Anthropol 36(2):199-221. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In macaques, the period of peak synaptic density occurs during infancy, whereas in humans and chimpanzees peak synaptic densities take place during the midjuvenile or (in humans) childhood period.

    “In macaques the period of peak synaptic density occurs during infancy, whereas in humans and chimpanzees peak synaptic densities take place during the midjuvenile or (in humans) childhood period (44).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [44] 44. Bianchi S, et al. (2013) Synaptogenesis and development of pyramidal neuron den- dritic morphology in the chimpanzee neocortex resembles humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 110(Suppl 2):10395-10401. source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Past attempts to quantify the contribution of the brain to the body's metabolic expenditure suggested that the brain accounted for a continuously decreasing fraction of RMR as the brain-to-body weight ratio declined with age.

    “Whereas past attempts to quantify the contribution of the brain to the body's metabolic expenditure suggested that the brain accounted for a continuously decreasing fraction of RMR as the brain-to-body weight ratio declined with age (25,31)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [25] 25. Holliday MA (1986) Body composition and energy needs during growth. Human Growth: A Comprehensive Treatise, Vol 2 Postnatal Growth, eds Falkner F, Tanner JM (Plenum, New York), 2 Ed, pp 117-139. source
    • cites [31] 31. Holliday MA (1971) Metabolic rate and organ size during growth from infancy to maturity and during late gestation and early infancy. Pediatrics 47(Suppl 2):169-179. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The increase in body growth rate at puberty is unusually pronounced in humans and is deferred to an age when brain glucose uptake is greatly reduced.

    “It is notable that the increase in body growth rate at puberty-which is unusually pronounced in humans-is deferred to an age when brain glucose uptake is greatly reduced (1,26,41).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [1] 1. Bogin B (1999) Patterns of Human Growth (Cambridge Univ Press, Cambridge, UK), 2nd Ed.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [26] 26. Aiello LC, Wells JCK (2002) Energetics and the evolution of the genus Homo. Annu Rev Anthropol 31:323-328. source
    • cites [41] 41. Leigh SR (1996) Evolution of human growth spurts. Am J Phys Anthropol 101(4): 455-474. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The strong, inverse relationship between developmental changes in the brain's glucose uptake and body-weight growth rate supports the hypothesis that human brain development is sufficiently costly to require a compensatory reduction in expenditure on body growth, thus helping explain unusually slow rate of childhood growth and resultant delay in attainment of adult size and sexual maturity相比 other

    “We interpret our finding of an inverse relationship between the brain's demand for glucose and body-weight growth rate as support for the hypothesis that human brain development is sufficiently costly to require a compensatory reduction in expenditure on body growth, thus helping explain our unusually slow rate of childhood growth and resultant delay in attainment of adult size and sexual maturity”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Brain energetics are not likely to impose a strong constraint on later juvenile body growth in macaques, whereas in chimpanzees growth is predicted to be slowed in the juvenile period, but to a lesser degree than in humans because of their smaller brains and corresponding lower brain metabolic needs.

    “Brain energetics are thus not likely to impose a strong constraint on later juvenile body growth in macaques, whereas in chimpanzees growth is predicted to be slowed in the juvenile period, but to a lesser degree than in humans because of their smaller brains and corresponding lower brain metabolic needs (22).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [22] 22. Leigh SR (2004) Brain growth, life history, and cognition in primate and human evolution. Am J Primatol 62(3):139-164. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The finding that human brain glucose demands peak during childhood, and evidence that brain metabolism and body growth rate covary inversely across development, support the hypothesis that the high costs of human brain development require compensatory slowing of body growth rate.

    “The finding that human brain glucose demands peak during childhood, and evidence that brain metabolism and body growth rate covary inversely across development, support the hypothesis that the high costs of human brain development require compensatory slowing of body growth rate.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Despite having similar cranial capacities, dental eruption data suggest that Neanderthals grew more rapidly than modern humans.

    “despite having similar cranial capacities, dental eruption data suggest that Neanderthals grew more rapidly than modern humans (48).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [48] 48. Smith TM, et al. (2010) Dental evidence for ontogenetic differences between modern humans and Neanderthals. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107(49):20923-20928. source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The high and inflexible glucose requirements of the developing human brain make it susceptible to impairment from nutritional shortfall.

    “It has been noted that the high and inflexible glucose requirements of the developing human brain make it susceptible to impairment from nutritional shortfall (18).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [18] 18. Kuzawa CW (1998) Adipose tissue in human infancy and childhood: An evolutionary perspective. Am J Phys Anthropol 107(Suppl 27):177-209. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The latest World Health Organization (WHO) report on human energy requirements finds that caloric needs for body growth are lowest at 4-5 y.

    “and the latest World Health Organization (WHO) report on human energy requirements similarly finds that caloric needs for body growth are lowest at 4-5 y (38).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [38] 38. Food and Agriculture Organization & World Health Organization (2004) Human En- ergy Requirements: Report of a Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation (Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    A system in which extended social networks provisioned food for children, combined with shifts to calorically dense and easily digested foods procured through hunting, would have allowed the costs of human brain development to be widely distributed and also buffered against shortfall.

    “A system in which extended social networks provisioned food for children, combined with shifts to calorically dense and easily digested foods procured through hunting (14,15), would have allowed the costs of human brain development to be widely distributed and also buffered against shortfall.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [14] 14. Foley RA, Lee PC (1991) Ecology and energetics of encephalization in hominid evo- lution. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 334(1270):223-231, discussion 232. source
    • cites [15] 15. Leonard WR, Robertson ML (1992) Nutritional requirements and human evolution: A bioenergetics model. Am J Hum Biol 4(2):179-195. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Changes in insulin secretion help coordinate glucose delivery to the brain as brain size and energy requirements change during development.

    “Changes in insulin secretion are believed to help coordinate glucose delivery to the brain as brain size and energy requirements change during development (60,61).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [60] 60. Kubera B, et al. (2013) Energy allocation between brain and body during ontogenetic development. Am J Hum Biol 25(6):725-732. source
    • cites [61] 61. Peters A, et al. (2004) The selfish brain: Competition for energy resources. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 28(2):143-180. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The lCMRGlc values in the 29 children were compared with those of seven healthy young adult volunteers, whose detailed neurological and psychological examinations disclosed no abnormalities.

    “The lCMRGlc values in the 29 children were compared with those of the seven healthy young adult volunteers, whose detailed neurological and psychological examinations disclosed no abnormalities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    RMR was estimated from WHO age- and sex-specific predictive equations, causing discontinuities at ages 3 and 10 y.

    “Because RMR was estimated from WHO age-and sex- specific predictive equations, there were discontinuities at the ages corre- sponding to changes in the predictive equations (at 3 and 10 y of age) (SI Appendix, Fig. S4).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [38] 38. Food and Agriculture Organization & World Health Organization (2004) Human En- ergy Requirements: Report of a Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation (Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Written informed consent for the PET procedures was obtained from adult participants and from parents of minors, with institutional review board oversight by the University of California at Los Angeles Human Subject Protection Committee.

    “Written informed consent for the PET procedures was obtained directly from adult participants, and for minors, from parents, with institutional review board oversight by the University of California at Los Angeles Human Subject Protection Committee.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
32 of 32

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The Dekaban and Sadowsky brain-weight series is the only available data series that reports brain and body weights from the same individuals and spans birth to adulthood.

    “To our knowledge, this highly cited data series is the only one available that reports brain and body weights from the same individuals, and that spans birth to adulthood.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There is no study that includes PET and MRI data in the same healthy individuals spanning birth to adulthood, for ethical reasons.

    “For ethical reasons, there is no study that includes PET and MRI data in the same healthy individuals spanning birth to adulthood.”
2 of 2

Claims other papers make about this one

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Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. J Durnin Basal Metabolic Rate in Man. Report of a Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation on Energy and Protein Requirements (Univ of Glasgow, Glasgow, 1981).

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Authors
Kuzawa, C. W., Chugani, H. T., Grossman, L. I., Lipovich, L., Muzik, O., Hof, P. R., Wildman, D. E., Sherwood, C. C., Leonard, W. R., & Lange, N.
Affiliations
  • Northwestern University (US)
  • Children's Hospital of Michigan (US)
  • Wayne State University (US)
  • Department of Pediatrics,
  • Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai (US)
  • University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
  • George Washington University (US)
  • Department of Anthropology,
  • Harvard University (US)
ORCID
Venue
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
Publisher
National Academy of Sciences
Published
2014-08-25
Volume
111
Issue
36
Pages
13010-13015
ISSN
  • 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
  • 1091-6490
DOI
10.1073/pnas.1323099111
PMC
PMC4246958
OpenAlex
W2069193149
Cited by
585
References
74
Citations by year
2026: 47 · 2025: 66 · 2024: 58 · 2023: 48 · 2022: 47 · 2021: 57 · 2020: 81 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 42 · 2017: 25 · 2016: 40 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 6 · 2012: 1
FWCI
44.89
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders
  • National Science Foundation (0827531, 220020293, 0827546)
  • James S. McDonnell Foundation (220020293)
  • National Institutes of Health (n01ns092319-000, n01ns092317-000, n01ns92315-15-0-1, n01hd23343-8-0-0, n01ns092314-002, n01ns092316-000, n01ns092318-002, n01mh90002-26-0-0, NS034783)
  • National Institute of Mental Health (N01-MH09-0002)
  • National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (N01 NS092318, N01 NS002320, R56NS034783, N01 NS092316, N01 NS092314, N01 NS092315, N01 NS092317, N01 NS092319, R01NS034783)
  • Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (N01-HD023343)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Primate Behavior and Ecology
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Developmental Neuroscience › Neurogenesis and neuroplasticity mechanisms
Keywords
human brain development, brain glucose uptake, resting metabolic rate, daily energy requirements, body growth rate, life history evolution, puberty
MeSH terms
Adult, Aging, Basal Metabolism, Body Weight, Brain, Biological Evolution, Female, Glucose, Humans, Male, Young Adult

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-11.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-11.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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