CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 465Dementia and Cognitive Impairment ResearchCognitive Abilities and TestingAging and Gerontology Research

Cognitive reserve and cognitive function in healthy older people: a meta-analysis

Open access
Opdebeeck, Carol, Martyr, Anthony, Clare, Linda·2016·Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition
DOI 10.1080/13825585.2015.1041450
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

The associations between proxy measures of cognitive reserve (CR) and cognition vary across studies and cognitive domains. This meta-analysis aimed to assess the relationship between CR and cognition in multiple domains (memory, executive function, visuospatial ability, and language). CR was considered in terms of three key proxy measures - educational level, occupational status, and engagement in cognitively stimulating activities - individually and in combination. One-hundred and thirty-five studies representing 128,328 participants were included. Of these, 109 used a measure of education, 19 used a measure of occupation, 31 used a measure of participation in cognitively stimulating activities, and 6 used a combination of these. All three proxy measures had a modest positive association with cognition; occupational status and cognitive activities showed the most variation across cognitive domains. This supports the view that the commonly used proxy measures of CR share an underlying process but that each additionally provides a unique contribution to CR.

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1080/13825585.2015.1041450

Cites

160 of 160 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Education alone is not a comprehensive indication of cognitive reserve, and multiple proxy indicators representing reserve at different stages of life are preferable.

    “Education alone is not a comprehensive indication of cognitive reserve and it is suggested that multiple proxy indicators representing reserve at different stages of life are preferable [30, 31].”

    From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [30]

  • This approach is preferable as it accounts for the variance in reserve built at different stages of life.

    “This approach is preferable as it accounts for the variance in reserve built at different stages of life [30, 31].”

    From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [30]

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 41

  1. Hultsch, D. F., Hammer, M., & Small, B. J. (1993). Age differences in cognitive performance in later life: Relationships to self-reported health and activity life style. Journal of Gerontology, 48, 1-11. doi: 10.1093/geronj/48.1.P1 Jefferson, A. L., Gibbons, L. E., Rentz, D. M., Carvalho, J. O., Manly, J., Bennett, D. A., & Jones, R. N. (2011). A life course model of cognitive activities, socioeconomic status, education, reading ability, and cognition. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 59, 1403-1411. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2011.03499.x · DOI · Paper page
  2. Lezak, M. D. (1995). Neuropsychological Assessment 3 rd Ed. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
  3. Aartsen, M. J., Smits, C. H., van Tilburg, T., Knipscheer, K. C., & Deeg, D. J. (2002). Activity in older adults: cause or consequence of cognitive functioning? A longitudinal study on everyday activities and cognitive performance in older adults. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 57, 153-62. doi: 10.1093/geronb/57.2.P153 · DOI · Paper page
  4. Aiken Morgan, A. T., Sims, R. C., & Whitfield, K. E. (2010). Cardiovascular health and education as sources of individual variability in cognitive aging among African Americans. Journal of Aging and Health, 22, 477-503. doi: 10.1177/0898264310361627 · DOI
  5. Albert, S. M., & Teresi, J. A. (1999). Reading ability, education, and cognitive status assessment among older adults in Harlem, New York city. American Journal of Public Health, 89, 95-2. doi:10.2105/AJPH.89.1.95 · DOI
  6. Angel, L., Fay, S., Bouazzaoui, B., Baudouin, A., & Isingrini, M. (2010). Protective role of educational level on episodic memory aging: An event-related potential study. Brain and Cognition, 74, 312-323. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2010.08.012 · DOI
  7. Anstey, K. J., Hofer, S. M., & Luszcz, M. A. (2003). A latent growth curve analysis of late- life sensory and cognitive function over 8 years: evidence for specific and common factors underlying change. Psychology and Aging, 18, 714-726. doi: 10.1037/0882- 7974.18.4.714 · DOI
  8. Ashley, J. G. (2008). The relation between different forms of activity and cognition in older adults. (Doctoral dissertation) Southern Illinois University Carbondale. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/21069568?accountid=14874
  9. Barnes, D. E., Tager, I. B., Satariano, W. A., & Yaffe, K. (2004). The relationship between literacy and cognition in well-educated elders. The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 59, 390-395. doi: 10.1093/gerona/59. · DOI
  10. Brand, H. L. S. (Oct 2002). The relationship between social-cognitive factors and physical health on memory function in older adults. (Doctoral dissertation) Saint Louis University. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/619951287?accountid=14874
  11. Brewster, P. W., Melrose, R. J., Marquine, M. J., Johnson, J. K., Napoles, A., MacKay- Brandt, A., . . . Mungas, D. (2014). Life experience and demographic influences on cognitive function in older adults. Neuropsychology, 28, 846-858. doi: 10.1037/neu0000098 · DOI
  12. Gonzales, C. (2012). The psychometric properties of the lifetime experience questionnaire (LEQ) in older American adults. (Doctoral dissertation) University of North Carolina, Greensboro. Retrieved from http://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/listing.aspx?id=8629
  13. Hill, R. D., Wahlin, Å., Winblad, B., & Bäckman, L. (1995). The role of demographic and life style variables in utilizing cognitive support for episodic remembering among very old adults. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 50B, 219-227. doi: 10.1093/geronb/50B. · DOI
  14. P219 Ho, Y., & Chan, A. S. (2005). Comparing the effects of mahjong playing and reading on cognitive reserve of the elderly. Journal of Psychology in Chinese Societies, 6, 5-26. · DOI
  15. P1 Inouye, S. K., Albert, M. S., Mohs, R., Sun, K., & Berkman, L. F. (1993). Cognitive performance in a high-functioning community-dwelling elderly population. Journal of Gerontology, 48, M146-M151. doi: 10.1093/geronj/48. · DOI
  16. Le Carret, N., Lafont, S., Letenneur, L., Dartigues, J., Mayo, W., & Fabrigoule, C. (2003). The effect of education on cognitive performances and its implication for the constitution of the cognitive reserve. Developmental Neuropsychology, 23, 317-337. doi: 10.1207/S15326942DN2303_1 · DOI
  17. Lee, Y. S., Lee, C. L., & Yang, H. T. (2012). Effects of aging and education on false memory. International Journal of Aging & Human Development, 74, 287-298.
  18. Lin, F., Friedman, E., Quinn, J., Chen, D., & Mapstone, M. (2012). Effect of leisure activities on inflammation and cognitive function in an aging sample. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 54, 398-404. doi: 10.1016/j.archger.2012.02.002 · DOI
  19. Luszcz, M. A. (1992). Predictors of memory in young-old and old-old adults. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 15, 147-166. doi: 10.1177/016502549201500108 · DOI
  20. Lyman, G. H., & Kuderer, N. M. (2005). The strengths and limitations of meta-analyses based on aggregate data. BMC medical research methodology, 5, 14-21. doi: 10.1186/1471-2288-5-14 · DOI · Paper page
  21. Mangione, C. M., Seddon, J. M., Cook, E. F., Krug, J. H., Sahagian, C. R., Campion, E. W., & Glynn, R. J. (1993). Correlates of cognitive function scores in elderly outpatients. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 41, 491-497.
  22. Mathuranath, P. S., Cherian, J. P., Mathew, R., George, A., Alexander, A., & Sarma, S. P. (2007). Mini mental state examination and the addenbrooke's cognitive examination: Effect of education and norms for a multicultural population. Neurology India, 55, 106-110. doi: 10.4103/0028-3886.32779 · DOI
  23. Morgan, A. A. Marsiske, M., Whitfield, K. E. (2007). Characterizing and explaining differences in cognitive test performance between African American and European American older adults. Experimental Aging Research, 34, 80-100. doi: 10.1080/03610730701776427 · DOI
  24. Mousavi-Nasab, S. M., Kormi-Nouri, R., & Nilsson, L. G. (2014). Examination of the bidirectional influences of leisure activity and memory in old people: a dissociative effect on episodic memory. British Journal of Psychology, 105(3), 382-398. doi: 10.1111/bjop.12044 · DOI
  25. Mueller, A. E., Raymond, N., & Yochim, B. P. (2013). Cognitive activity engagement predicts future memory and executive functioning in older adults. Activities, Adaptation & Aging, 37, 251-264. doi: 10.1080/01924788.2013.816833 · DOI
  26. Mulgrew, C. L., Morgenstern, N., Shetterly, S. M., Baxter, J., Barón, A. E., & Hamman, R. F. (1999). Cognitive functioning and impairment among rural elderly Hispanic and non-Hispanics whites as assessed by the mini-mental state examination. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 54B, 223-230. doi: 10.1093/geronb/54B. · DOI
  27. P223 · DOI
  28. Murphy, M. & O'Leary, E. (2010). Depression, cognitive reserve and memory performance in older adults. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 25, 665-671. doi: 10.1002/gps.2404 · DOI
  29. Newson, R. S. & Kemps, E. B. (2005). General lifestyle activities as a predictor of current cognition and cognitive change in older adults: a cross-sectional and longitudinal examination. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 60, 113-120. doi:10.1093/geronb/60. · DOI
  30. Parisi, J. M., Stine-Morrow, E. A. L., Noh, S. R., & Morrow, D. G. (2009). Predispositional engagement, activity engagement, and cognition among older adults. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 16, 485-504. doi: 10.1080/13825580902866653 · DOI
  31. Rexroth, D. F., Tennstedt, S. L., Jones, R. N., Guey, L. T., Rebok, G. W., Marsiske, M. M., . . . Unverzagt, F. W. (2013). Relationship of demographic and health factors to cognition in older adults in the ACTIVE study. Journal of Aging and Health, 25, 128S-146S. doi: 10.1177/0898264313498415 · DOI
  32. Scherr, P. A., Albert, M. S., Funkenstein, H. H., Cook, N. R., Hennekens, C. H., Branch, L. G., . . . Evans, D. A. (1988). Correlates of cognitive function in an elderly community population. American Journal of Epidemiology, 128, 1084-1101.
  33. Schmand, B., Smit, J., Lindeboom, J., Smits, C., Hooijer, C., Jonker, C., & Deelman, B. (1997). Low education is a genuine risk factor for accelerated memory decline and dementia. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 50, 1025-1033. doi: S0895- 4356(97)00121-2
  34. Senanarong, V., Poungvarin, N., Sukhatunga, K., Prayoonwiwat, N., Chaisewikul, R., Petchurai, R., . . . Viriyavejakul, A. (2001). Cognitive status in the community dwelling Thai elderly. Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand, 84, 408-416.
  35. Smart, E. L., Gow, A. J., & Deary, I. J. (2014). Occupational complexity and lifetime cognitive abilities. Neurology, 83, 2285-2291 doi: 10.1212/WNL.0000000000001075 · DOI
  36. Smits, C. H. M., van Rijsselt, R. J. T., Jonker, C., & Deeg, D. J. H. (1995). Social participation and cognitive functioning in older adults. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 10, 325-331. doi: 10.1002/gps.930100409 · DOI
  37. Van Exel, E., Gussekloo, J., de Craen, A. J. M., Bootsma-van der Wiel, A., Houx, P., Knook, D. L., & Westendorp, R. G. J. (2001). Cognitive function in the oldest old: women perform better than men. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 71, 29- 32. doi:10.1136/jnnp.71.1.29 · DOI
  38. van Hooren, S. A. H., Valentijn, A. M., Bosma, H., Ponds, R. W. H. M., van Boxtel, M. P. J., & Jolles, J. (2007). Cognitive functioning in healthy older adults aged 64-81: a cohort study into the effects of age, sex, and education. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 14, 40-54. doi: 10.1080/138255890969483 · DOI
  39. Wiederholt, W. C., Cahn, D., Butters, N. M., Salmon, D. P., Kritz-Silverstein, D., & Barrett- Connor, E. (1993). Effects of age, gender and education on selected neuropsychological tests in an elderly community cohort. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 41, 639-647
  40. P155 Wirth, M., Haase, C. M., Villeneuve, S., Vogel, J., & Jagust, W. J. (2014). Neuroprotective pathways: lifestyle activity, brain pathology, and cognition in cognitively normal older adults. Neurobiology of Aging, 35, 1873-1882. doi: 0.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2014.02.015 · DOI
  41. Zimmerman, M. E., Bigal, M. E., Katz, M. J., Brickman, A. M., & Lipton, R. B. (2012). Sleep onset/maintenance difficulties and cognitive function in nondemented older adults: The role of cognitive reserve. Journal of the International

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Opdebeeck, C., Martyr, A., & Clare, L.
Affiliations
  • Bangor University (GB)
  • University of Exeter (GB)
Corresponding author
Clare, Linda
ORCID
Venue
Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition
Publisher
Informa UK Limited
Published
2015-05
Volume
23
Issue
1
Pages
40-60
ISSN
  • 0928-9917 (ISSN-L)
  • 1382-5585
  • 1744-4128
DOI
10.1080/13825585.2015.1041450
OpenAlex
W2040867760
Cited by
465
References
160
Citations by year
2026: 36 · 2025: 61 · 2024: 51 · 2023: 74 · 2022: 35 · 2021: 43 · 2020: 46 · 2019: 44 · 2018: 34 · 2017: 21 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 3
FWCI
3.39
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Open Research Exeter (University of Exeter) (acceptedVersion)
  • e-space (Manchester Metropolitan University) (submittedVersion)
  • Figshare (submittedVersion)
  • Research Explorer (The University of Manchester) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
Keywords
cognitive reserve, cognitive function, older adults, educational attainment, occupational status, cognitively stimulating activities, memory, executive function, visuospatial ability, language, cognitive aging
MeSH terms
Aging, Humans, Language, Memory, Space Perception, Executive Function, Cognitive Reserve

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review