The EAGLE project: simulating the evolution and assembly of galaxies and their environments
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We introduce the Virgo Consortium's Evolution and Assembly of GaLaxies and their Environments (EAGLE) project, a suite of hydrodynamical simulations that follow the formation of galaxies and supermassive black holes in cosmologically representative volumes of a standard Λ cold dark matter universe. We discuss the limitations of such simulations in light of their finite resolution and poorly constrained subgrid physics, and how these affect their predictive power. One major improvement is our treatment of feedback from massive stars and active galactic nuclei (AGN) in which thermal energy is injected into the gas without the need to turn off cooling or decouple hydrodynamical forces, allowing winds to develop without predetermined speed or mass loading factors. Because the feedback efficiencies cannot be predicted from first principles, we calibrate them to the present-day galaxy stellar mass function and the amplitude of the galaxy-central black hole mass relation, also taking galaxy sizes into account. The observed galaxy stellar mass function is reproduced to ≲ 0.2 dex over the full resolved mass range, 108 < M*/M⊙ ≲ 1011, a level of agreement close to that attained by semi-analytic models, and unprecedented for hydrodynamical simulations. We compare our results to a representative set of low-redshift observables not considered in the calibration, and find good agreement with the observed galaxy specific star formation rates, passive fractions, Tully–Fisher relation, total stellar luminosities of galaxy clusters, and column density distributions of intergalactic C iv and O vi. While the mass–metallicity relations for gas and stars are consistent with observations for M* ≳ 109 M⊙ (M* ≳ 1010 M⊙ at intermediate resolution), they are insufficiently steep at lower masses. For the reference model, the gas fractions and temperatures are too high for clusters of galaxies, but for galaxy groups these discrepancies can be resolved by adopting a higher heating temperature in the subgrid prescription for AGN feedback. The EAGLE simulation suite, which also includes physics variations and higher resolution zoomed-in volumes described elsewhere, constitutes a valuable new resource for studies of galaxy formation.
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The largest EAGLE cosmological simulation contains 100 objects that are close analogs to the Milky Way in stellar and dark mass, SFR, and bulge-to-disk ratio, of which a handful have dynamically similar stellar halos.
“The largest EAGLE cosmological simulation (Schaye et al. 2015), for example, contains 100 objects that are close analogs to the Milky Way in terms of stellar and dark mass, SFR, and bulge-to-disk ratio, of which a handful have dynamically similar stellar halos (see Bignone et al. 2019).”
From Streams, Substructures, and the Early History of the Milky Way (2020) · cites this paper as Schaye et al. 2015
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THE LAST EIGHT-BILLION YEARS OF INTERGALACTIC C IV EVOLUTION
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Numerical overcooling in shocks
Creasey, P., Theuns, T., Bower, R. G., et al. (2011) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.19001.x · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Self-citationMcCarthy, I. G., Schaye, J., Font, A. S., Theuns, T., Frenk, C. S., Crain, R. A., & Vecchia, C. D. (2012) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21951.x · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Self-citationThe impact of galaxy formation on X-ray groups
Kay, S. T., Thomas, P. A., & Theuns, T. (2003) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06711.x · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Self-citationImpact of baryons on the cluster mass function and cosmological parameter determination
Cusworth, S. J., Kay, S. T., Battye, R. A., & Thomas, P. A. (2014) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stu105 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 11
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
The EAGLE simulations of galaxy formation: calibration of subgrid physics and model variations
Crain, R. A., Schaye, J., Bower, R. G., Furlong, M., Schaller, M., Theuns, T., Dalla Vecchia, C., Frenk, C. S., McCarthy, I. G., Helly, J. C., et al. (2015) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stv725 · Cited by 1,451 · see citing works
Self-citationUniverseMachine: The correlation between galaxy growth and dark matter halo assembly from z = 0−10
Behroozi, P., Wechsler, R. H., Hearin, A. P., & Conroy, C. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1182 · Cited by 1,243 · see citing works
Bertone, G., & Hooper, D. (2018) · Reviews of Modern Physics · doi:10.1103/revmodphys.90.045002 · Cited by 1,241 · see citing works
Tumlinson, J., Peeples, M. S., & Werk, J. K. (2017) · Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-091916-055240 · Cited by 1,147 · see citing works
The Auriga Project: the properties and formation mechanisms of disc galaxies across cosmic time
Grand, R. J. J., Gómez, F. A., Marinacci, F., Pakmor, R., Springel, V., Campbell, D. J. R., Frenk, C. S., Jenkins, A., & White, S. D. M. (2017) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stx071 · Cited by 557 · see citing works
Self-citationEvidence for two early accretion events that built the Milky Way stellar halo
Myeong, G. C., Vasiliev, E., Iorio, G., Evans, N. W., & Belokurov, V (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1770 · Cited by 505 · see citing works
Evolution of galaxy stellar masses and star formation rates in the eagle simulations
Furlong, M., Bower, R. G., Theuns, T., Schaye, J., Crain, R. A., Schaller, M., Dalla Vecchia, C., Frenk, C. S., McCarthy, I. G., Helly, J., et al. (2015) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stv852 · Cited by 402 · see citing works
Self-citationStreams, Substructures, and the Early History of the Milky Way
Helmi, A. (2020) · Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-032620-021917 · Cited by 407 · see citing works
Weak Lensing for Precision Cosmology
Mandelbaum, R. (2018) · Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-081817-051928 · Cited by 409 · see citing works
Baryon effects on the internal structure of ΛCDM haloes in the EAGLE simulations
Schaller, M., Frenk, C. S., Bower, R. G., Theuns, T., Jenkins, A., Schaye, J., Crain, R. A., Furlong, M., Dalla Vecchia, C., & McCarthy, I. G. (2015) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stv1067 · Cited by 375 · see citing works
Self-citationThe milky way total mass profile as inferred from Gaia DR2
Cautun, M., Benítez-Llambay, A., Deason, A. J., Frenk, C. S., Fattahi, A., Gómez, F. A., Grand, R. J. J., Oman, K. A., Navarro, J. F., & Simpson, C. M. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa1017 · Cited by 332 · see citing works
“Our final sample consist of 33 medium-resolution and 5 high-resolution Auriga haloes, 16 medium-resolution and 6 high-resolution APOSTLE haloes, and 27 EAGLE_recal haloes.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationThe Milky Way total mass profile as inferred from Gaia DR2
Cautun, M., Benitez-Llambay, A., Deason, A. J., Frenk, C. S., Fattahi, A., Gómez, F. A., Grand, R. J. J., Oman, K. A., Navarro, J. F., & Simpson, C. M. (2019) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1911.04557 · Cited by 335
Self-citationThe CAMELS Project: Cosmology and Astrophysics with Machine-learning Simulations
Villaescusa-Navarro, F., Anglés-Alcázar, D., Genel, S., Spergel, D. N., S. Somerville, R., Dave, R., Pillepich, A., Hernquist, L., Nelson, D., Torrey, P., et al. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abf7ba · Cited by 304 · see citing works
Mackereth, J. T., Schiavon, R. P., Pfeffer, J., Hayes, C. R., Bovy, J., Anguiano, B., Prieto, C. A., Hasselquist, S., Holtzman, J., Johnson, J. A., et al. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty2955 · Cited by 285 · see citing works
Kruijssen, J. M. D., Pfeffer, J. L., Chevance, M., Bonaca, A., Trujillo-Gomez, S., Bastian, N., Reina-Campos, M., Crain, R. A., & Hughes, M. E. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa2452 · Cited by 252 · see citing works
“This suite of simulations combines the model for galaxy formation and evolution from EAGLE (Crain et al. 2015; Schaye et al. 2015) with the sub-grid model for the formation and evolution of the entire stellar cluster population MOSAICS (Kruijssen et al. 2011, 2012; Pfeffer et al. 2018).”
MethodSelf-citationColours and luminosities of <i>z</i> = 0.1 galaxies in the eagle simulation
Trayford, J. W., Theuns, T., Bower, R. G., Schaye, J., Furlong, M., Schaller, M., Frenk, C. S., Crain, R. A., Vecchia, C. D., & McCarthy, I. G. (2015) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stv1461 · Cited by 251 · see citing works
Self-citationPfeffer, J., Kruijssen, J. M. D., Crain, R. A., & Bastian, N. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stx3124 · Cited by 243 · see citing works
Self-citationThe apostle project: Local Group kinematic mass constraints and simulation candidate selection
Fattahi, A., Navarro, J. F., Sawala, T., Frenk, C. S., Oman, K. A., Crain, R. A., Furlong, M., Schaller, M., Schaye, J., Theuns, T., et al. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stv2970 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
Self-citationThe mass of the Milky Way from satellite dynamics
Callingham, T. M., Cautun, M., Deason, A. J., Frenk, C. S., Wang, W., Gómez, F. A., Grand, R. J. J., Marinacci, F., & Pakmor, R. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz365 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Self-citationDavies, J. J., Crain, R. A., Oppenheimer, B. D., & Schaye, J. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz3201 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Self-citationThe fraction of dark matter within galaxies from the IllustrisTNG simulations
Lovell, M. R., Pillepich, A., Genel, S., Nelson, D., Springel, V., Pakmor, R., Marinacci, F., Weinberger, R., Torrey, P., Vogelsberger, M., et al. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty2339 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
The local high-velocity tail and the Galactic escape speed
Deason, A. J., Fattahi, A., Belokurov, V., Evans, N. W., Grand, R. J. J., Marinacci, F., & Pakmor, R. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz623 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Deep learning predictions of galaxy merger stage and the importance of observational realism
Bottrell, C., Hani, M. H., Teimoorinia, H., Ellison, S. L., Moreno, J., Torrey, P., Hayward, C. C., Thorp, M., Simard, L., & Hernquist, L. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz2934 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Huang, S., Leauthaud, A., Greene, J. E., Bundy, K., Lin, Y.-T., Tanaka, M., Miyazaki, S., & Komiyama, Y. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stx3200 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
The Copernicus Complexio: a high-resolution view of the small-scale Universe
Hellwing, W. A., Frenk, C. S., Cautun, M., Bose, S., Helly, J., Jenkins, A., Sawala, T., & Cytowski, M. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw214 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Self-citationSimulated Milky Way analogues: implications for dark matter direct searches
Bozorgnia, N., Calore, F., Schaller, M., Lovell, M., Bertone, G., Frenk, C. S., Crain, R. A., Navarro, J. F., Schaye, J., & Theuns, T. (2016) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2016/05/024 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Self-citationKruijssen, J. M. D., Schruba, A., Hygate, A. P. S., Hu, C.-Y., Haydon, D. T., & Longmore, S. N. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty1128 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Dutton, A. A., Macciò, A. V., Dekel, A., Wang, L., Stinson, G., Obreja, A., Di Cintio, A., Brook, C., Buck, T., & Kang, X. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw1537 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Ferreira, L., Conselice, C. J., Duncan, K., Cheng, T.-Y., Griffiths, A., & Whitney, A. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab8f9b · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Identifying galaxy mergers in observations and simulations with deep learning
Pearson, W. J., Wang, L., Trayford, J. W., Petrillo, C. E., & van der Tak, F. F. S. (2019) · Astronomy & Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201935355 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Self-citationConvolutional neural network identification of galaxy post-mergers in UNIONS using IllustrisTNG
Bickley, R. W., Bottrell, C., Hani, M. H., Ellison, S. L., Teimoorinia, H., Yi, K. M., Wilkinson, S., Gwyn, S., & Hudson, M. J. (2021) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stab806 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Properties of H i discs in the Auriga cosmological simulations
Marinacci, F., Grand, R. J. J., Pakmor, R., Springel, V., Gómez, F. A., Frenk, C. S., & White, S. D. M. (2017) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw3366 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Self-citationSnyder, G. F., Rodriguez-Gomez, V., Lotz, J. M., Torrey, P., Quirk, A. C. N., Hernquist, L., Vogelsberger, M., & Freeman, P. E. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1059 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Zanisi, L., Huertas-Company, M., Lanusse, F., Bottrell, C., Pillepich, A., Nelson, D., Rodriguez-Gomez, V., Shankar, F., Hernquist, L., Dekel, A., et al. (2021) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa3864 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Alignments between galaxies, satellite systems and haloes
Shao, S., Cautun, M., Frenk, C. S., Gao, L., Crain, R. A., Schaller, M., Schaye, J., & Theuns, T. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw1247 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Self-citationInvestigating the effect of using game-based learning on EFL learners' motivation and anxiety
Ahmed, A. A. A., Ampry, E. S., Komariah, A., Hassan, I., Thahir, I., Hussein Ali, M., Fawzi Faisal, A., & Zafarani, P. (2022) · Education Research International · doi:10.1155/2022/6503139 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Fossil stellar streams and their globular cluster populations in the E-MOSAICS simulations
Hughes, M. E., Pfeffer, J., Martig, M., Bastian, N., Crain, R. A., Kruijssen, J. M. D., & Reina-Campos, M. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty2889 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Self-citationPredicting star formation properties of galaxies using deep learning
Surana, S., Wadadekar, Y., Bait, O., & Bhosale, H. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa537 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Estimating the Milky Way's Mass via Hierarchical Bayes: A Blind Test on MUGS2 Simulated Galaxies
Eadie, G., Keller, B., & Harris, W. E. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aadb95 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Teaching Neural Networks to Generate Fast Sunyaev–Zel’dovich Maps
Thiele, L., Villaescusa-Navarro, F., Spergel, D. N., Nelson, D., & Pillepich, A. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abb80f · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Largescale simulation efforts have enabled direct comparison to microwave observations (Hallman et al. 2007b; Schäfer et al. 2006; Kay et al. 2012; Schaye et al. 2015; Dolag et al. 2016; Spacek et al. 2018; Nelson et al. 2019).”
Background
- Authors
- Schaye, J., Crain, R. A., Bower, R. G., Furlong, M., Schaller, M., Theuns, T., Dalla Vecchia, C., Frenk, C. S., McCarthy, I. G., Helly, J. C., Jenkins, A., Rosas-Guevara, Y. M., White, S. D. M., Baes, M., Booth, C. M., Camps, P., Navarro, J. F., Qu, Y., Rahmati, A., Sawala, T., Thomas, P. A., & Trayford, J.
- Affiliations
- Leiden University (NL)
- Durham University (GB)
- University of Antwerp (BE)
- Liverpool John Moores University (GB)
- Max Planck Society (DE)
- Ghent University (BE)
- University of Victoria (CA)
- University of Sussex (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Schaye, Joop
- ORCID
- Venue
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2014-11-11
- Volume
- 446
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 521-554
- ISSN
- 0035-8711 (ISSN-L)
- 1365-2966
- OpenAlex
- W2119131940
- Cited by
- 3,601
- References
- 209
- Citations by year
- 2026: 225 · 2025: 326 · 2024: 340 · 2023: 338 · 2022: 369 · 2021: 338 · 2020: 362 · 2019: 356 · 2018: 285 · 2017: 293 · 2016: 226 · 2015: 137 · 2014: 6
- FWCI
- 116.61
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (publishedVersion)
- Liverpool John Moores University (acceptedVersion)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (acceptedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- Ghent University Academic Bibliography (Ghent University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Liverpool John Moores University (submittedVersion)
- Sussex Research Online (University of Sussex) (submittedVersion)
- Max Planck Digital Library (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (PHY11- 25915, ST/K003267/1, ST/H008519/1, FP7/2007-2013, ST/K00042X/1, NSF PHY-11-25915, 25915)
- European Commission (278594, NSF PHY11-25915, 2007–2013, 256573, FP7 2007-2013, FP7/2007)
- Durham University (ST/K00042X/1, ST/K003267/1, ST/H008519/1)
- Partnership for Advanced Computing in Europe AISBL
- Belgian Federal Science Policy Office (AP P7/08 CHARM)
- Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (ST/K00042X/1, FP7 2007-2013, ST/H008519/1)
- Uniwersytet Warszawski
- Science and Technology Facilities Council (ST/I00162X/1, ST/H008519, ST/I004459/2, ST/K00042X/1, PERG06-GA-2009-256573, FP7/2007-2013, ST/L00075X/1, ST/L00061X/1, ST/F001166/1, ST/H008519/1, ST/I000976/1, ST/K003267/1, ST/L000652/1, ST/I004459/1)
- European Regional Development Fund (FP7/2007‐2013, 2007 – 2013)
- FP7 Ideas: European Research Council (267291, 321334)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Galaxies: Formation, Evolution, Phenomena
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysics and Star Formation Studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies
- Keywords
- EAGLE simulation, galaxy formation, galaxy assembly, supermassive black hole formation, AGN feedback, stellar feedback, fluid simulation, stellar mass function, galaxy size, specific star formation rate, quiescent galaxies, Tully-Fisher relation, galaxy clusters, intergalactic medium, mass-metallicity relation, galaxy groups, subgrid physics, resolution limit
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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