When Efforts to Depolarize the Electorate Fail

Levendusky, Matthew S

doi:10.1093/poq/nfy036

Cited by 64Electoral Systems and Political ParticipationSocial and Intergroup PsychologySocial Media and Politics

When Efforts to Depolarize the Electorate Fail

Levendusky, Matthew S·2018·Public Opinion Quarterly

DOI 10.1093/poq/nfy036

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

The mass public has become affectively polarized—ordinary Americans increasingly dislike and distrust those from the other party, with negative consequences for politics. Drawing on work in political and social psychology, this paper tests two mechanisms for reducing this discord, both of which have been shown to reduce similar biases in other settings: heightening partisan ambivalence, and using self-affirmation techniques. A population-based survey experiment shows that neither strategy reduces affective polarization in the aggregate. But this null finding masks an important heterogeneity: Heightening partisan ambivalence reduces affective polarization for ideological moderates, but increases such discord for those with more extreme ideological identities. Efforts to depolarize the electorate can make it more deeply divided, with important implications for our understanding of contemporary politics and the durability of affective polarization.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1093/poq/nfy036

Cites

29 of 29 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Advances In Experimental Social Psychology
(2022) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(22)x0002-6 · Cited by 22,559 · see citing works
The Social psychology of intergroup relations
Austin, W. G., & Worchel, S. (1979) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 11,577 · see citing works
Social categorization and intergroup behaviour
Tajfel, H., Billig, M. G., Bundy, R. P., & Flament, C. (1971) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420010202 · Cited by 5,562 · see citing works
The Social Self: On Being the Same and Different at the Same Time
Brewer, M. B. (1991) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167291175001 · Cited by 5,107 · see citing works
The Psychology of Self-Affirmation: Sustaining the Integrity of the Self
Steele, C. M. (1988) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60229-4 · Cited by 3,697 · see citing works
Affect, Not Ideology
Iyengar, S., Sood, G., & Lelkes, Y. (2012) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1093/poq/nfs038 · Cited by 2,748 · see citing works
Fear and loathing across party lines: New evidence on group polarization
Iyengar, S., & Westwood, S. J. (2015) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1111/ajps.12152 · Cited by 2,452 · see citing works
Hearing the Other Side: Deliberative versus Participatory Democracy
Mutz, D. C. (2006) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511617201 · Cited by 1,687 · see citing works
Untitled work
(2004) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,673 · see citing works
“I Disrespectfully Agree”: The Differential Effects of Partisan Sorting on Social and Issue Polarization
Mason, L. (2015) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1111/ajps.12089 · Cited by 1,367 · see citing works
The rise of negative partisanship and the nationalization of U.S. elections in the 21st century
Abramowitz, A. I., & Webster, S. (2016) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2015.11.001 · Cited by 978 · see citing works
The Influence of Partisan Motivated Reasoning on Public Opinion
Bolsen, T., Druckman, J. N., & Cook, F. L. (2014) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-013-9238-0 · Cited by 891 · see citing works
Political homophily in social relationships: evidence from online dating behavior
Huber, G. A., & Malhotra, N. (2017) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1086/687533 · Cited by 664 · see citing works
The Parties in Our Heads: Misperceptions about Party Composition and Their Consequences
Ahler, D. J., & Sood, G. (2018) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1086/697253 · Cited by 586 · see citing works
Experimental manipulations of self-affirmation: A systematic review
MCQueen, A., & Klein, W. M. P. (2006) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860600805325 · Cited by 563 · see citing works
Americans, Not Partisans: Can Priming American National Identity Reduce Affective Polarization?
Levendusky, M. S. (2018) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1086/693987 · Cited by 492 · see citing works
Self-citation
Why Washington Won't Work: Polarization, Political Trust, and the Governing Crisis
Hetherington, M. J., & Rudolph, T. J. (2015) · doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226299358.001.0001 · Cited by 486 · see citing works
The Economic Consequences of Partisanship in a Polarized Era
McConnell, C., Margalit, Y., Malhotra, N., & Levendusky, M. (2018) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1111/ajps.12330 · Cited by 432 · see citing works
Self-citation
Does Media Coverage of Partisan Polarization Affect Political Attitudes?
Levendusky, M., & Malhotra, N. (2016) · Political Communication · doi:10.1080/10584609.2015.1038455 · Cited by 419 · see citing works
Self-citation
The Ambivalent Partisan
Lavine, H. G., Johnston, C. D., & Steenbergen, M. R. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199772759.001.0001 · Cited by 383 · see citing works
Why Washington Won’t Work
Curry, J. M. (2016) · The Forum · doi:10.1515/for-2016-0029 · Cited by 321 · see citing works
Social categorization and intergroup behaviour: Does minimal intergroup discrimination make social identity more positive?
Oakes, P. J., & Turner, J. C. (1980) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420100307 · Cited by 312 · see citing works
The Limits of Partisan Prejudice
Lelkes, Y., & Westwood, S. J. (2017) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1086/688223 · Cited by 311 · see citing works
Partisanship in a Social Setting
Klar, S. (2014) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1111/ajps.12087 · Cited by 290 · see citing works
Bridging the partisan divide: Self-affirmation reduces ideological closed-mindedness and inflexibility in negotiation.
Cohen, G. L., Sherman, D. K., Bastardi, A., Hsu, L., McGoey, M., & Ross, L. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.93.3.415 · Cited by 239 · see citing works
Hearing the other side
Badenhorst, W. M. (2011) · Without Prejudice · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Seeing the Other Side: Reducing Political Partisanship via Self‐Affirmation in the 2008 Presidential Election
Binning, K. R., Sherman, D. K., Cohen, G. L., & Heitland, K. (2010) · Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy · doi:10.1111/j.1530-2415.2010.01210.x · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Underreporting in Political Science Survey Experiments: Comparing Questionnaires to Published Results
Franco, A., Malhotra, N., & Simonovits, G. (2015) · Political Analysis · doi:10.1093/pan/mpv006 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Seeing the other side
Tuller, H. M., Bryan, C. J., Heyman, G. D., & Christenfeld, N. J. S. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2015.02.003 · Cited by 43 · see citing works

Flagged first, then by citations

1 of the 30 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Sorted by citations

The Origins and Consequences of Affective Polarization in the United States
Iyengar, S., Lelkes, Y., Levendusky, M., Malhotra, N., & Westwood, S. J. (2019) · Annual Review of Political Science · doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-051117-073034 · Cited by 3,317 · see citing works
Self-citation
Partisanship as a Social Identity: Implications for Polarization
West, E. A., & Iyengar, S. (2020) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-020-09637-y · Cited by 265 · see citing works
Can Interparty Contact Reduce Affective Polarization? A Systematic Test of Different Forms of Intergroup Contact
Wojcieszak, M., & Warner, B. R. (2020) · Political Communication · doi:10.1080/10584609.2020.1760406 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
How Empathic Concern Fuels Political Polarization
Simas, E. N., Clifford, S., & Kirkland, J. H. (2019) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055419000534 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Social Drivers and Algorithmic Mechanisms on Digital Media.
Metzler, H., & Garcia, D. (2024) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916231185057 · Cited by 204 · see citing works
“Algorithm rankings could further foster intergroup contact and understanding by presenting posts that are not too distant from a user’s own position (Levendusky, 2018; Sherif, 1963).”
Background
Interventions to reduce partisan animosity
Hartman, R., Blakey, W., Womick, J., Bail, C., Finkel, E. J., Han, H., Sarrouf, J., Schroeder, J., Sheeran, P., Van Bavel, J. J., et al. (2022) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-022-01442-3 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Worldview conflict and prejudice
Brandt, M. J., & Crawford, J. T. (2019) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2019.09.002 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Affective blocs: Understanding affective polarization in multiparty systems
Kekkonen, A., & Ylä‐Anttila, T. (2021) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2021.102367 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Party Competition and Cooperation Shape Affective Polarization: Evidence from Natural and Survey Experiments in Israel
Bassan‐Nygate, L., & WEISS, C. M. (2021) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/00104140211024283 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Is brand activism an emotional affair? The role of moral emotions in consumer responses to brand activism
Wannow, S., Haupt, M., & Ohlwein, M. (2023) · Journal of Brand Management · doi:10.1057/s41262-023-00326-9 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Affective Polarization: Over Time, Through the Generations, and During the Lifespan
Phillips, J. (2022) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-022-09784-4 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Can Social Media Incivility Induce Enthusiasm?
Kosmidis, S., & Theocharis, Y. (2020) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1093/poq/nfaa014 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Affective polarization and coalition signals
Wagner, M., & Praprotnik, K. (2024) · Political Science Research and Methods · doi:10.1017/psrm.2023.33 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Inclusion reduces political prejudice
Voelkel, J. G., Ren, D., & Brandt, M. J. (2021) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104149 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Privacy, Sensitive Questions, and Informed Consent
Plutzer, E. (2019) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1093/poq/nfz017 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Self-Affirmation and Identity-Driven Political Behavior
Lyons, B. A., Farhart, C. E., Hall, M. P., Kotcher, J., Levendusky, M., Miller, J. M., Nyhan, B., Raimi, K., Reifler, J., Saunders, K. L., et al. (2021) · Journal of Experimental Political Science · doi:10.1017/xps.2020.46 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Self-citation
Strategy News Is Good News: How Journalistic Coverage of Politics Reduces Affective Polarization
Zoizner, A., Shenhav, S. R., Fogel-Dror, Y., & Sheafer, T. (2020) · Political Communication · doi:10.1080/10584609.2020.1829762 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Reducing Group Alignment in Factual Disputes? The Limited Effects of Social Identity Interventions
Lyons, B. A. (2018) · Science Communication · doi:10.1177/1075547018804826 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
The (Null) Effects of Happiness on Affective Polarization, Conspiracy Endorsement, and Deep Fake Recognition: Evidence from Five Survey Experiments in Three Countries
Yu, X., Wojcieszak, M., Lee, S., Casas, A., Azrout, R., & Gackowski, T. (2021) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-021-09701-1 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Don’t Throw the Frame Out With the Bathwater: How Episodic News Frames Can Prevent Identity-Motivated Reasoning
Boyer, M. M., Lecheler, S. K., & Aaldering, L. (2022) · Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly · doi:10.1177/10776990221097057 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
The paradox of poor representation: How voter–party incongruence curbs affective polarisation
Marchal, N., & Watson, D. (2021) · The British Journal of Politics and International Relations · doi:10.1177/13691481211048502 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Social Depolarization and Diversity of Opinions—Unified ABM Framework
Sobkowicz, P. (2023) · Entropy · doi:10.3390/e25040568 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Interventions to Reduce Partisan AnimosityPreprint
Hartman, R., Blakey, W., Womick, J., Bail, C. A., Finkel, E. J., Han, H. C., Sarrouf, J., Schroeder, J., Sheeran, P., Bavel, J. J. V., et al. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/ha2tf · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Priming Norms to Combat Affective Polarization
Mullinix, K. J., & Lythgoe, T. J. (2022) · Political Research Quarterly · doi:10.1177/10659129211073319 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
The Devil No More? Decreasing Negative Outparty Affect through Asymmetric Partisan Thinking
Marsh, W. Z. C. (2023) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1093/poq/nfad009 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Interacting as Equals: How Contact Can Promote Tolerance Among Opposing Partisans
Greene, K. F., Rossiter, E., Seira, E., & Simpser, A. (2023) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-024-02043-y · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Investigating the potential of civil disagreement to decrease issue polarization in China
Guan, T., Liu, T., & Chen, X. (2023) · Policy & Internet · doi:10.1002/poi3.338 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
A group that grieves together stays together: Examining the impact of Holocaust Memorial Day in Israel on affective polarization
Gur, T., Ayal, S., Wagner, M., Adler, E., & Halperin, E. (2024) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12956 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
GuesSync!: An Online Casual Game To Reduce Affective Polarization
Rajadesingan, A., Choo, D., Zhang, J., Inakage, M., Budak, C., & Resnick, P. (2023) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3610190 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Interacting as Equals: How Contact Can Promote Tolerance Among Opposing PartisansPreprint
Greene, K. F., Rossiter, E., Seira, E., & Simpser, A. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4456223 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica
Freidin, E., Moro, R., & Silenzi, M. I. (2022) · REVISTA SAAP · doi:10.46468/rsaap.16.1.a2 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
What Can Depolarize the Polarizers? Affective Polarization for Party Activists Before and After Elections
Ciobanu, C., & Sandu, D. (2024) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/00104140241259453 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Voter outreach campaigns can reduce affective polarization among implementing political activistsPreprint
Kalla, J., & Broockman, D. (2021) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/5yahr · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Intraindividual Changes in Political Identity Strength (But Not Direction) Are Associated With Political Animosity in the United States and the Netherlands
Brandt, M. J., & Vallabha, S. (2023) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672231203471 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“How Do We Put the Country Back Together?” Mitigating Affective Polarization Through Mediated Intergroup Contact
Brooks, J. J., Dobmeier, C. M., & Walter, N. (2024) · Mass Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/15205436.2024.2332341 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Analogies Offer Value Through the Struggle to Make Them Work: Making Sense of the Psychological Immune System
Vaz, A., Mata, A., & Critcher, C. R. (2021) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2021.2004815 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Effects of Intellectual Humility in the Context of Affective Polarization: Approaching and Avoiding Others in Controversial Political DiscussionsPreprint
Knöchelmann, L., & Cohrs, J. C. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/vrdma · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Countering Political Polarization Through Conscious and Unconscious Integrative Complexity
Kam, C., & Bellehumeur, C. (2024) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/01973533.2024.2413486 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Opinion polarization and its connected disagreement: Modeling and modulation
Qian, X., Qin, B.-W., Zhu, H., & Lin, W. (2025) · Physical review. E · doi:10.1103/rldl-6t9s · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Ideología, polarización afectiva y análisis del discurso
Fernández, N., & Almagro, M. (2022) · Bajo Palabra · doi:10.15366/bp2022.31.008 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
An Open Mind or a Big Heart: Possible Routes to Reducing In-Group Bias
Arceneaux, K., & Wielen, R. J. V. (2025) · Political Communication · doi:10.1080/10584609.2025.2493705 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Intraindividual Changes in Political Identity Strength (but not Direction) are Associated with Political Animosity in the United States and the NetherlandsPreprint
Brandt, M. J., & Vallabha, S. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/cbydg · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Measuring affective polarization: Matching concepts to measures
Druckman, J. N., Klar, S., Krupnikov, Y., Levendusky, M., & Ryan, J. B. (2026) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.70152 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citation
Source-Inconsistent News From Partisan Media: Expectancy Violations as a Way to Improve Attitudes Toward Out-Party Media
Yamamoto, M., & Chang, C.-H. (2025) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/00936502251343980 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Voting Advice Applications and Their Impact on Ideological and Affective Polarization
Walder, M., Fivaz, J., & Schwarz, D. (2026) · Politics and Governance · doi:10.17645/pag.11236 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Intuitive Politics and Why Thinking Isn’t Guaranteed to Save Us
Arceneaux, K., & Wielen, R. J. V. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197578384.003.0018 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The dual nature of American partisan affect: Examining the impact of inparty affinity and outparty animosity on unique forms of political behavior
Wiezel, A., & Wagner, J. K. (2023) · Journal of Social and Political Psychology · doi:10.5964/jspp.8135 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Civic Friendship in the Wild
Nam, C. (2023) · Schools · doi:10.1086/727141 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Intergroup Hostility in the Public Sphere: Systematizing the Rising Concern for Affective Polarization Beyond Partisan Lines
Shoai, A. (2025) · International Journal of Public Opinion Research · doi:10.1093/ijpor/edaf044 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Transformation of Identity: Macro and Micro Levels of Research
Sosnovskaya, A. M., & Potapova, E. B. (2021) · Administrative Consulting · doi:10.22394/1726-1139-2021-11-122-132 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Party Polarization and COVID-19
Lin, J. A.-J., & Druckman, J. N. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197615133.003.0015
A razão comprometida: grupos polarizados e explicações radicais
Martins, R. F. (2023) · doi:10.11606/d.8.2023.tde-29022024-133340
Does Interaction With Out-Party Elites in a Classroom Setting Diminish Negative Partisanship?
Frederick, S., Miller, M. G., & GREEN, D. P. (2024) · American Politics Research · doi:10.1177/1532673x241263076
Can Generative AI Promote Democracy? Countering Polarization with Digital StorytellingPreprint
Wegemer, C. M., & Burke, J. (2025) · doi:10.35542/osf.io/cfrj8_v1
The embodied roots of disgust: exploring the link between disgust sensitivity, interoception and political ideologyPreprint
Mohr, M. V., & Manos Tsakiris, A. (2025) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/dwqs6_v4
Negative Campaigns, Negative Votes? Meanings of Voting and Political Campaigns
Boyer, M., le Gall, C., & Plescia, C. (2025) · The International Journal of Press/Politics · doi:10.1177/19401612251376808
Attitude Formation Based on Political Views: An Expectancy-Value Model of Interpersonal Likability in Politics
Lange, J., Koch, A. S., Knöchelmann, L., & Alves, H. (2025) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672251406455
Affective Polarization
Ársælsson, K. M., & Yphtach Lelkes, B. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/obo/9780199756841-0322
What to do about polarization? Evaluating the evidence base of recommendations for depolarization
van Eck, C. W., Meyer, H., & Brüggemann, M. (2026) · Annals of the International Communication Association · doi:10.1093/anncom/wlag012
Priming common European and democratic values does not reduce affective polarization
Canalejo-Molero, Á., Cicchi, L., da Silva, F. F., Garzia, D., Reiljan, A., & Trechsel, A. H. (2026) · European Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s1755773926100496
Perspective-Taking and Partisan Depolarization in the U.S. and Turkey
Paksoy, C., & Huddy, L. (2026) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-026-10175-2
Affective, but not ideological, polarization increases tolerance for undemocratic behavior
Muñoz, J., Amat, F., Falcó-Gimeno, A., Guinjoan, M., & Rodón, T. (2026) · European Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s1755773926100630
Who is More Trusted for Domestic Politics News? A Cross-national Comparison of Information Needs, AI Tool Use, and the Domestic-Foreign Media Trust GapPreprint
Miao, P., & Yu, X. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.7499775

The Origins and Consequences of Affective Polarization in the United States
Iyengar, S., Lelkes, Y., Levendusky, M., Malhotra, N., & Westwood, S. J. (2019) · Annual Review of Political Science · doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-051117-073034 · Cited by 3,317 · see citing works
Self-citation
The polarization of American politics
Iyengar, S. (2021) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780429326769-13 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Partisan Nation: The Rise of Affective Partisan Polarization in the American Electorate
Abramowitz, A. I. (2013)
Why depolarization is hard: Evaluating attempts to decrease partisan animosity in America
Holliday, D. E., Yphtach Lelkes, B., & Westwood, S. J. (2025) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2508827122 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
The Electoral Effects of Ideological vs. Affective PolarizationPreprint
Cox, L., Cubillos, P. P., & Foulon, C. L. (2022) · OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints)

Authors: Levendusky, M. S.
Affiliations: University of Pennsylvania (US)
Corresponding author: Levendusky, Matthew S
ORCID: Levendusky, Matthew S
Venue: Public Opinion Quarterly
Publisher: Oxford University Press (OUP)
Published: 2018
Volume: 82
Issue: 3
Pages: 583-592
ISSN: 0033-362X (ISSN-L)
1537-5331
DOI: 10.1093/poq/nfy036
OpenAlex: W2889417773
Cited by: 64
References: 30
Citations by year: 2026: 8 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 2
FWCI: 19.58
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: academic.oup.com/journals/pages/open_access/funder_policies/chorus/standard_publication_model (vor, 242 d)
Locations: Public Opinion Quarterly (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Electoral Systems and Political Participation
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Communication › Social Media and Politics
Keywords: affective polarization, depolarization, self-affirmation, ideological extremity, survey experiment

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

When Efforts to Depolarize the Electorate Fail

Abstract

Integrity signals

Claims the paper makes

Cites

Cited by

Related

Record

About these checks