A Power-Efficient Switched-Capacitor Stimulating System for Electrical/Optical Deep Brain Stimulation
Abstract
A power-efficient wireless switched-capacitor based stimulating (SCS) system for electrical/optical deep brain stimulation (DBS) is presented. The SCS system efficiently charges storage capacitors directly from an inductive link and delivers accurately balanced charge to the tissue, improving the overall stimulator efficiency. In addition, the decaying exponential stimulus pulses generated by SCS can be more effective than conventional rectangular and ramp stimuli in activating neural tissue when consuming the same amount of energy, leading to higher stimulus efficacy. A 4-channel wireless SCS system in 0.35 μm CMOS process achieves stimulator efficiency of 80.4% with capacitor pairs charged to ±2V, while the decaying exponential stimulus requires equal or less stimulus energy and injected charge than other stimuli depending on pulse width to activate the same tissue area. The SCS system has also been utilized for power-efficient wireless optogenetic stimulation by periodically discharging capacitors into high-current micro-LED arrays. Results from acute in vivo experiments have verified the utility of the SCS system prototype in both electrical and optical stimulation.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The decaying exponential waveform generated by a discharging capacitor activates a larger tissue area compared to the rectangular and triangular (ramp) alternatives.
“The decaying exponential waveform generated by a discharging capacitor activates a larger tissue area compared to the rectangular and triangular (ramp) alternatives [123].”
From Active Neural Interface Circuits and Systems for Selective Control of Peripheral Nerves: A Review (2024) · cites this paper as [123]
High-frequency switched-capacitor stimulating systems have demonstrated the feasibility of integrating smaller capacitors to achieve superior energy efficiency with charge-driven stimulators while maintaining the required level of safety.
“Highfrequency switched-capacitor stimulating systems (Fig. 5(d)) have demonstrated the feasibility of integrating smaller capacitors to achieve superior energy efficiency with chargedriven stimulators while maintaining the required level of safety [123], [142].”
From Active Neural Interface Circuits and Systems for Selective Control of Peripheral Nerves: A Review (2024) · cites this paper as [123]
Cites
Gabriel, S., Lau, R.-W.-M., & Gabriel, C. (1996) · Physics in Medicine and Biology · doi:10.1088/0031-9155/41/11/002 · Cited by 4,487 · see citing works
Electrical stimulation of excitable tissue: design of efficacious and safe protocols
Merrill, D. R., Bikson, M., & Jefferys, J. G. R. (2005) · Journal of Neuroscience Methods · doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2004.10.020 · Cited by 2,078 · see citing works
Cochlear implants: A remarkable past and a brilliant future
Wilson, B. S., & Dorman, M. F. (2008) · Hearing Research · doi:10.1016/j.heares.2008.06.005 · Cited by 875 · see citing works
McIntyre, C. C., Richardson, A. G., & Grill, W. M. (2002) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00353.2001 · Cited by 764 · see citing works
Channelrhodopsin-2 and optical control of excitable cells
Zhang, F., Wang, L., Boyden, E. S., & Deisseroth, K. A. (2006) · Nature Methods · doi:10.1038/nmeth936 · Cited by 683 · see citing works
Circuit-breakers: optical technologies for probing neural signals and systems
Zhang, F., Aravanis, A. M., Adamantidis, A., de Lecea, L., & Deisseroth, K. A. (2007) · Nature reviews. Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn2192 · Cited by 623 · see citing works
Design and Optimization of a 3-Coil Inductive Link for Efficient Wireless Power Transmission
Kiani, M., Jow, U.-M., & Ghovanloo, M. (2011) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2011.2158431 · Cited by 560 · see citing works
Self-citationSelection of stimulus parameters for deep brain stimulation
Kuncel, A. M., & Grill, W. M. (2004) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2004.05.031 · Cited by 460 · see citing works
Tissue and electrode capacitance reduce neural activation volumes during deep brain stimulation
Butson, C. R., & McIntyre, C. C. (2005) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2005.06.023 · Cited by 336 · see citing works
An Integrated 256-Channel Epiretinal Prosthesis
Chen, K., Yang, Z., Hoang, L., Weiland, J. D., Humayun, M. S., & Liu, W. (2010) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2010.2055371 · Cited by 266 · see citing works
A wirelessly powered and controlled device for optical neural control of freely-behaving animals
Wentz, C. T., Bernstein, J. G., Monahan, P. E., Guerra, A., Rodriguez, A. V., & Boyden, E. S. (2011) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2560/8/4/046021 · Cited by 242 · see citing works
A Power-Efficient Wireless System With Adaptive Supply Control for Deep Brain Stimulation
Lee, H., Park, H., & Ghovanloo, M. (2013) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2013.2266862 · Cited by 231 · see citing works
Self-citationAn RFID-Based Closed-Loop Wireless Power Transmission System for Biomedical Applications
Kiani, M., & Ghovanloo, M. (2010) · IEEE Transactions on Circuits & Systems II Express Briefs · doi:10.1109/tcsii.2010.2043470 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Self-citationAn active approach for charge balancing in functional electrical stimulation.
Sooksood, K., Stieglitz, T., & Ortmanns, M. (2010) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2010.2040277 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Kwon, K. Y., Sirowatka, B., Weber, A., & Li, W. (2013) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2013.2282318 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Self-citationEnergy-efficient waveform shapes for neural stimulation revealed with a genetic algorithm
Wongsarnpigoon, A., & Grill, W. M. (2010) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2560/7/4/046009 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Impedance characteristics of deep brain stimulation electrodes in vitro and in vivo
Wei, X. F., & Grill, W. M. (2009) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2560/6/4/046008 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Challenges and Opportunities for Next-Generation Intracortically Based Neural Prostheses
Gilja, V., Chestek, C. A., Diester, I., Henderson, J. M., Deisseroth, K. A., & Shenoy, K. V. (2011) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1109/tbme.2011.2107553 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Sit, J.-J., & Sarpeshkar, R. (2007) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2007.911631 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Arfin, S. K., & Sarpeshkar, R. (2012) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2011.2166072 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
A Power-Efficient Neural Tissue Stimulator With Energy Recovery
Kelly, S. K., & Wyatt, J. L. (2011) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2010.2076384 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Efficiency Analysis of Waveform Shape for Electrical Excitation of Nerve Fibers
Wongsarnpigoon, A., Woock, J. P., & Grill, W. M. (2010) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnsre.2010.2047610 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
An Experimental Study of Voltage, Current, and Charge Controlled Stimulation Front-End Circuitry
Simpson, J. A., & Ghovanloo, M. (2007) · IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems proceedings · doi:10.1109/iscas.2007.378401 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Self-citationOptimal charging of capacitors
Paul, S., Schlaffer, A., & Nossek, J. A. (2000) · IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I Fundamental Theory and Applications · doi:10.1109/81.855456 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Switched-capacitor based implantable low-power wireless microstimulating systems
Ghovanloo, M. (2006) · IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems proceedings · doi:10.1109/iscas.2006.1693055 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Self-citationA Power-Efficient Wireless Capacitor Charging System Through an Inductive Link
Lee, H., & Ghovanloo, M. (2013) · IEEE Transactions on Circuits & Systems II Express Briefs · doi:10.1109/tcsii.2013.2278104 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Self-citationTowards a Switched-Capacitor based Stimulator for efficient deep-brain stimulation
Vidal, J. G., & Ghovanloo, M. (2010) · Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) · doi:10.1109/iembs.2010.5626290 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citationIntegrated slanted microneedle-LED array for optogenetics
Kwon, K. Y., Khomenko, A., Haq, M., & Li, W. (2013) · Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) · doi:10.1109/embc.2013.6609484 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Self-citationPsychiatry's shocking new tools [brain stimulation techniques]
Moore, S. K. (2006) · IEEE Spectrum · doi:10.1109/mspec.2006.1604837 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Lee, H., Kwon, K.-Y., Li, W., & Ghovanloo, M. (2014) · Digest of technical papers/Digest of technical papers - IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference · doi:10.1109/isscc.2014.6757493 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Piech, D. K., Johnson, B. C., Shen, K., Ghanbari, M. M., Li, K. Y., Neely, R. M., Kay, J. E., Carmena, J. M., Maharbiz, M. M., & Muller, R. (2020) · Nature Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1038/s41551-020-0518-9 · Cited by 442 · see citing works
Zhang, M., Tang, Z., Liu, X., & Van der Spiegel, J. (2020) · Nature Electronics · doi:10.1038/s41928-020-0390-3 · Cited by 231 · see citing works
A mm-Sized Wireless Implantable Device for Electrical Stimulation of Peripheral Nerves
Charthad, J., Chang, T. C., Liu, Z., Sawaby, A., Weber, M. J., Baker, S., Gore, F., Felt, S. A., & Arbabian, A. (2018) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2018.2799623 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
“Pioneering work by researchers has led to several optimized designs of neurostimulators using RF near-field, mid-field, and far-field power transfer [16]–[19].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialLee, B., Koripalli, M. K., Jia, Y., Acosta, J., Sendi, M. S. E., Choi, Y., & Ghovanloo, M. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-24465-1 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Self-citationA Trimodal Wireless Implantable Neural Interface System-on-Chip
Jia, Y., Güler, Ü., Lai, Y.-P., Gong, Y. P., Weber, A. J., Li, W., & Ghovanloo, M. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2020.3037452 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
“ploys a switched-capacitor based stimulation (SCS) architecture, which can deliver instantaneous currents large enough for the intensity of light produced by the flashing μLEDs to be large enough to surpass the optogenetic neuromodulation threshold without overloading the inductive link or creating a mismatch [35].”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationMiniaturized optogenetic neural implants: a review
Fan, B., & Li, W. (2015) · Lab on a Chip · doi:10.1039/c5lc00588d · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Self-citationEfficient Four-Coil Wireless Power Transfer for Deep Brain Stimulation
Yang, C., Chang, C., Lee, S.-Y., Chang, S.-J., & Chiou, L. (2017) · IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques · doi:10.1109/tmtt.2017.2658560 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
“Previous related research [9]–[12] has been limited to”
BackgroundOptogenetic control of body movements via flexible vertical light-emitting diodes on brain surface
Lee, S., Kim, J.-J., Shin, J. H., Lee, H. E., Kang, I., Gwak, K., Kim, D., Kim, D., & Lee, K. J. (2017) · Nano Energy · doi:10.1016/j.nanoen.2017.12.011 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Self-citationApplications of Microwaves in Medicine
Chiao, J. ‐., Li, C., Lin, J., Caverly, R. H., Hwang, J. C. M., Rosen, H. D., & Rosen, A. (2022) · IEEE Journal of Microwaves · doi:10.1109/jmw.2022.3223301 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“Another example is an inductive link at 2 MHz used to power a brain stimulator with 8 channels [147], [148].”
BackgroundIbrahim, A., Meng, M., & Kiani, M. (2018) · IEEE Sensors Journal · doi:10.1109/jsen.2018.2812420 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Silicon-Integrated High-Density Electrocortical Interfaces
Ha, S., Akinin, A., Park, J., Kim, C., Wang, H., Maier, C., Mercier, P. P., & Cauwenberghs, G. (2016) · Proceedings of the IEEE · doi:10.1109/jproc.2016.2587690 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
“Near-field power transfer, which operates at frequencies up to approximately 100 MHz for typical implants, has been extensively used for cochlear implants [135], retinal prostheses [86], [93], and various research IMD systems [122], [136]–[139], and has been investigated and characterized to maximize its usage and pow…”
Smart wireless power transfer — opportunities and challenges
Liu, W., Chau, K. T., Tian, X., Wang, H., & Hua, Z. (2023) · Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.rser.2023.113298 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Ausra, J., Wu, M., Zhang, X., Vázquez‐Guardado, A., Skelton, P. D., Peralta, R., Avila, R. O., Murickan, T., Haney, C. R., Huang, Y. Y., et al. (2021) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2025775118 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“Such capacitors have traditionally been used as buffer energy storage in passive devices (27 – 29).”
BackgroundButz, N., Taschwer, A., Nessler, S., Manoli, Y., & Kuhl, M. (2018) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2018.2828823 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“Comparing cause-based methods, the publications [1], [9], as well as this paper, monitor VE, thus responding to any kind of electrode–electrolyte voltage errors, in contrast to [3] and [17].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialA Dual-Band Wireless Power Transmission System for Evaluating mm-Sized Implants
Jia, Y., Mirbozorgi, S. A., Zhang, P., Inan, O. T., Li, W., & Ghovanloo, M. (2019) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2019.2915649 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“stimulation (SCS) architecture [38], [41], which uses a voltage doubler to periodically charge a storage capacitor, CLED , directly from link3−coil and discharges CLED into the selected LED at the onset of optical stimulation through positive and negative terminal selector multiplexers.”
BackgroundSelf-citationMagNI: A Magnetoelectrically Powered and Controlled Wireless Neurostimulating Implant
Yu, Z., Chen, J. C., Alrashdan, F. T., Avants, B. W., He, Y., Singer, A., Robinson, J. T., & Yang, K. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2020.3037862 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
A mm-Sized Free-Floating Wirelessly Powered Implantable Optical Stimulation Device
Jia, Y., Mirbozorgi, S. A., Lee, B., Khan, W., Madi, F., Inan, O. T., Weber, A. J., Li, W., & Ghovanloo, M. (2019) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2019.2918761 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
“lated coil voltage, VCOIL, setting a 12-bit shift register through a serial-to-parallel (S2P) converter with 10-bit pre/post-amble data [25], [28].”
InfluentialSelf-citationStimDust: A 6.5mm3, wireless ultrasonic peripheral nerve stimulator with 82% peak chip efficiency
Johnson, B. C., Shen, K., Piech, D. K., Ghanbari, M. M., Li, K. Y., Neely, R., Carmena, J. M., Maharbiz, M. M., & Muller, R. (2018) · Custom Integrated Circuits Conference · doi:10.1109/cicc.2018.8357047 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“Active, multi-channel neurostimulators utilizing inductive coupling have achieved high efficiencies [5], [6], but require cm-scale coils and occupy microcontroller driver ASIC”
BackgroundResultJeon, H., Bang, J.-S., Jung, Y., Choi, I., & Je, M. (2019) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2019.2930903 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Model-based analysis and design of waveforms for efficient neural stimulation
Grill, W. M. (2015) · Progress in brain research · doi:10.1016/bs.pbr.2015.07.031 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Park, J.-S., Aziz, M. K., Li, S., Chi, T., Grijalva, S. I., Sung, J. H., Cho, H. C., & Wang, H. (2017) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2017.2759220 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
A Wireless Dimmable Lighting System Using Variable-Power Variable-Frequency Control
Liu, W., Chau, K. T., Lee, C. H. T., Jiang, C., Han, W., & Lam, W. H. (2019) · IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics · doi:10.1109/tie.2019.2947814 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“Because of the advantages of high luminous efficacy, long operating life, and low maintenance requirements [10], LEDs are becoming widely used in artificial lighting, visible light communication, and medical implants [11].”
BackgroundA 0.13- $\mu\text{m}$ CMOS SoC for Simultaneous Multichannel Optogenetics and Neural Recording
Gagnon-Turcotte, G., Khiarak, M. N., Éthier, C., Koninck, Y. D., & Gosselin, B. J. (2018) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2018.2865474 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“Optical stimulation is often provided in these systems using CMOS LED drivers that are based on current mirrors [24] or capacitor discharging techniques [25].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAhmadi, M. M., & Ghandi, S. (2018) · IEEE Sensors Journal · doi:10.1109/jsen.2018.2851605 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“INDUCTIVE powering is a widely used approach to transfer power to smart medical implants such as cochlear implants [1]–[3], retinal prostheses [4]–[7], deep brain stimulators [8], [9] and artificial pacemakers [10], [11].”
In Vivo High-Efficiency Wireless Power Transfer With Multisine Excitation
Liu, Z., Zheng, Z., & Guo, Y. (2017) · IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques · doi:10.1109/tmtt.2017.2681652 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“Since it covers the power-consumption of the state-of-the-art neuro-stimulator chips [32], it would be a good candidate to replace the existing battery operated systems and used to wirelessly power the fully implanted neuro-stimulation devices in the future.”
BackgroundLyu, H., Wang, J., La, J.-H., Chung, J. M., & Babakhani, A. (2018) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2018.2852680 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“It provides precise charge control by tuning the size of the storage capacitor and has been proven safe and effective by recent studies [25]–[27].”
Hsu, W.-Y., & Schmid, A. (2017) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2017.2694144 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
A Smart Wirelessly Powered Homecage for Long-Term High-Throughput Behavioral Experiments
Lee, B., Kiani, M., & Ghovanloo, M. (2015) · IEEE Sensors Journal · doi:10.1109/jsen.2015.2430859 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“The PMIC includes two active rectifiers to generate both positive VREC P and negative VREC N for bipolar stimulation [38], two LDOs to generate VD D = 2 V and VSS = −2 V, an automatic resonance tuning (ART) block, and LSK circuitry.”
MethodSelf-citationImplantable optoelectronic probes for in vivo optogenetics
Iseri, E., & Kuzum, D. (2017) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/aa60b3 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
A High-Efficiency ASK-Modulated Class-E Power and Data Transmitter for Medical Implants
Ahmadi, M. M., Pezeshkpour, S., & Kabirkhoo, Z. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics · doi:10.1109/tpel.2021.3092829 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“INDUCTIVE links are widely used to transfer power to smart medical implants, such as artificial pacemakers [1], [2], cochlear implants [3]–[5], retinal prostheses [6]–[9], deep brain stimulators [10], [11], and spinal cord stimulators [12]–[14].”
BackgroundJung, Y., Kweon, S.-J., Jeon, H., Choi, I., Koo, J., Kim, M. K., Lee, H. J., Ha, S., & Je, M. (2022) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2022.3188626 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“S INCE the advent of low-power, low-noise implantable neural-recording ICs [1], [2], neural interface ICs that include neural-recording and stimulating circuits have been widely researched and developed [3]–[34].”
BackgroundSelf-citationSelf-Regulated Reconfigurable Voltage/Current-Mode Inductive Power Management
Gougheri, H. S., & Kiani, M. (2017) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2017.2737138 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
A mm-sized free-floating wirelessly powered implantable optical stimulating system-on-a-chip
Jia, Y., Mirbozorgi, S. A., Lee, B., Khan, W., Madi, F., Weber, A. J., Li, W., & Ghovanloo, M. (2018) · Digest of technical papers/Digest of technical papers - IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference · doi:10.1109/isscc.2018.8310387 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“In the forward data telemetry block [3], a pulse-position-modulated clock/data recovery (PPM-CDR) circuit recovers synchronized clock/data from the on-off-keyed (OOK) coil voltage, VCOIL.”
Self-citationA High-Voltage Compliance, 32-Channel Digitally Interfaced Neuromodulation System on Chip
Reich, S., Sporer, M., Haas, M., Becker, J., Schüettler, M., & Ortmanns, M. (2021) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2021.3076510 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“Several modes have been published, amongst which are charge-controlled [16], current-controlled and voltage-controlled stimulations.”
BackgroundYu, Z., Chen, J., He, Y., Alrashdan, F. T., Avants, B. W., Singer, A. L., Robinson, J. T., & Yang, K. (2021) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2021.3129993 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
A Fully Integrated RF-Powered Energy-Replenishing Current-Controlled Stimulator
Ha, S., Kim, C., Park, J., Cauwenberghs, G., & Mercier, P. P. (2019) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2018.2881800 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“event [27]–[32], and thus improving the energy efficiency of stimulation can yield significant device-level power reductions.”
BackgroundKim, M., Lee, H.-S., Ahn, J., & Lee, H. (2022) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2022.3207549 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“For BT, a switch-based load modulation scheme such as short-coil (SC)-BT has been commonly used to modulate the Rx load by shorting the L2 coil or connecting detuning capacitors to C2 [25], [26], [27], [28].”
MethodSelf-citationLee, H.-S., Ahn, J., Eom, K., Jung, W., Lee, S. H., Jung, Y.-W., Shin, S.-U., & Lee, H. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics · doi:10.1109/tpel.2022.3151427 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citationRashidi, A., Laursen, K., Hosseini, S., Huynh, H.-A., & Moradi, F. (2019) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2019.2949154 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“order to remove the battery and the long subcutaneous interconnects [7], [9].”
BackgroundGougheri, H. S., & Kiani, M. (2018) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2018.2884322 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Microbiome-Gut-Brain Axis as a Biomolecular Communication Network for the Internet of Bio-NanoThings
Akyildiz, I. F., Chen, J., Ghovanloo, M., Güler, Ü., Ozkaya‐Ahmadov, T., Pierobon, M., Sarioglu, A. F., & Unluturk, B. D. (2019) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2019.2942312 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“We have presented the first integrated wireless SCS SoC with inductive capacitor charging and charge-based stimulation capabilities, which can improve both stimulator efficiency and stimulus efficacy in DBS in [64].”
BackgroundSelf-citationDesign of Dual-Mode Stimulus Chip With Built-In High Voltage Generator for Biomedical Applications
Yen, T.-Y., & Ker, M. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2020.2999398 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“stimulators, such as cochlear implants to treat hearing damage [1], deep brain stimulators [2]–[5], spinal cord stimulations for the restoration of motor functions [6], [7], applications for retinal”
BackgroundLee, H., Howell, B. L., Grill, W. M., & Ghovanloo, M. (2017) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1109/tbme.2017.2741107 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“In the SCDS system, the system efficiency was a product of charging efficiency of storage capacitors [45] and discharge efficiency into the neural tissue [26] (see Fig.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationTowards miniaturized closed-loop optogenetic stimulation devices
Edward, E. S., Kouzani, A. Z., & Tye, S. J. (2018) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/aa7d62 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
An Ultra High-Frequency 8-Channel Neurostimulator Circuit With $\text{68}\%$ Peak Power Efficiency
Urso, A., Giagka, V., van Dongen, M. N., & Serdijn, W. A. (2019) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2019.2920294 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“The stimulator presented in [20] has the highest peak power efficiency (80.”
BackgroundInfluentialLee, H.-S., Ahn, J., Kang, M., & Lee, H. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2022.3192248 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“of neurons [10], [11], and recording devices to collect neural or bio-signals [12].”
BackgroundSelf-citationYao, D.-H., Liu, T.-N., Takamiya, M., & Chen, P.-H. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I Regular Papers · doi:10.1109/tcsi.2023.3299865 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“O WING to the miniaturization of electronic circuits, implantable medical devices (IMDs) have been widely adopted in various treatments [1], [2], [3], [4], [5], [6], [7], [8], [9], [10], [11].”
Background34.3 An 8.2mm3 Implantable Neurostimulator with Magnetoelectric Power and Data Transfer
Yu, Z., Chen, J., Avants, B. W., He, Y., Singer, A. L., Robinson, J. T., & Yang, K. (2020) · Digest of technical papers/Digest of technical papers - IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference · doi:10.1109/isscc19947.2020.9062931 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“A few wireless neural implants powered by RF, inductive coupling [1-3], ultrasound [4], and optics [5] have been reported; however, existing solutions cannot simultaneously achieve implant miniaturization, system portability, functional flexibility, and subject mobility, while avoiding tissue heating due to body absor…”
BackgroundEom, K., Park, M., Lee, H.-S., Ku, S.-B., Kim, N., Cha, S., Goo, Y. S., Kim, S., Kim, S., & Lee, H. (2023) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2023.3305521 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“Existing studies have realized cochlear implants [6], retinal prostheses [7], deep brain stimulators [8], and prosthetic limbs [9] that can treat diseases or replace functions of the human body by electrically or optically stimulate auditory, optic, central, and peripheral nerves.”
BackgroundSelf-citationActive Charge Balancer With Adaptive 3.3 V to 38 V Supply Compliance for Neural Stimulators
Butz, N., Kalita, U., & Manoli, Y. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I Regular Papers · doi:10.1109/tcsi.2021.3101550 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“It is much larger than the digital implementations [8], [10], [23], but comparable to other charge balancers like [11], as well as [5] and [6] that use 0.”
BackgroundA Wireless Multimodal Physiological Monitoring ASIC for Animal Health Monitoring Injectable Devices
Zhao, L., Stephany, R. G., Han, Y., Ahmmed, P., Huang, T.-P., Bozkurt, A. Y., & Jia, Y. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2024.3372571 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
CMOS Point-of-Care Diagnostics Technologies: Recent Advances and Future Prospects
Moeinfard, T., Ghafar‐Zadeh, E., & Magierowski, S. (2024) · Micromachines · doi:10.3390/mi15111320 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Kassiri, H., Chen, F., Salam, M. T., Chang, M., Vatankhahghadim, B., Carlen, P. L., Valiante, T. A., & Genov, R. (2019) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnsre.2019.2900455 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
A high-voltage compliant, electrode-invariant neural stimulator front-end in 65nm bulk-CMOS
Pepin, E., Uehlin, J. P., Micheletti, D., Perlmutter, S. I., & Rudell, J. C. (2016) · European Solid-State Circuits Conference (ESSCIRC) · doi:10.1109/esscirc.2016.7598284 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Although advancing the state-of-the-art in energy efficiency [1, 2] and form-factor, most bulk-CMOS neural stimulators published to date have limited voltage compliance (i.”
BackgroundA 13μm CMOS SoC for simultaneous multichannel optogenetics and electrophysiological brain recording
Gagnon-Turcotte, G., Éthier, C., Koninck, Y. D., & Gosselin, B. J. (2018) · Digest of technical papers/Digest of technical papers - IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference · doi:10.1109/isscc.2018.8310386 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Compared to previous designs [2,6], this circuit allows to precisely control the value of the forward current into each LED using a regulated cascode current source with feedback.”
BackgroundMethodAdvances in Neural Recording and Stimulation Integrated Circuits
Li, J., Liu, X., Mao, W., Chen, T., & Yu, H. (2021) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2021.663204 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Kassiri, H., Muneeb, A., Salahi, R., & Dabbaghian, A. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2024.3456825 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
A Wireless Implantable Closed-Loop Electrochemical Drug Delivery System
Wang, M. L., Yeon, P., Mofidfar, M., Chamberlayne, C. F., Xu, H., Annes, J. P., Zare, R. N., & Arbabian, A. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2024.3507022 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“The ring was 3D-printed using a Micro Series M3D printer as a 6 mm outer diameter (OD), 5 mm inner diameter (ID), 300 μ m tall ring with a 50 μ m layer height.”
Self-Image-Guided Ultrasonic Wireless Power Transmission to Millimeter-Sized Biomedical Implants
Meng, M., & Kiani, M. (2019) · Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) · doi:10.1109/embc.2019.8857559 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Nguyen, A. T., Xu, J., Luu, D. K., Overstreet, C. K., Cheng, J., Keefer, E. W., & Yang, Z. (2021) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2021.3057041 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Abdi, A., & Cha, H. (2016) · Microelectronics Journal · doi:10.1016/j.mejo.2016.10.013 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Inductively coupled, mm-sized, single channel optical neuro-stimulator with intensity enhancer
Khan, W., Jia, Y., Madi, F., Weber, A. J., Ghovanloo, M., & Li, W. (2019) · Microsystems & Nanoengineering · doi:10.1038/s41378-019-0061-6 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Self-citationMa, Y., Cui, K., Sun, Y., Chen, Z., & Fan, X. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics · doi:10.1109/tpel.2022.3169795 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Lee, J., Letner, J. G., Lim, J., Atzeni, G., Liao, J., Kamboj, A., Mani, B., Jeong, S., Kim, Y., Sun, Y., et al. (2024) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2023.3349179 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“…of the 100-nF storage capacitor used in the StiMote system illustrating the repeating points between stimulation and recharging cycles. using SCS [30], this problem is addressed by placing two different storage capacitors, both charged at the same level, and controlling the stimulation phases by…”
BackgroundMethodRashidi, A., Hosseini, S., Laursen, K., & Moradi, F. (2019) · IEEE International Conference on Electronics, Circuits and Systems (ICECS) · doi:10.1109/icecs46596.2019.8965042 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
S-MRUT: sectored-multiring ultrasonic transducer for selective powering of brain implants
Hosseini, S., Laursen, K., Rashidi, A., Mondal, T., Corbett, B., & Moradi, F. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency Control · doi:10.1109/tuffc.2020.3001084 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“(RF) [9], inductive [10], and, recently, ultrasonic [11], [12] links are among the popular approaches for powering brain implants.”
BackgroundCho, J., Seong, G., Chang, Y., & Kim, C. (2021) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2021.667447 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Plugging Electronics Into Minds: Recent Trends and Advances in Neural Interface Microsystems
Kim, M. K., Jeon, H., Lee, H. J., & Je, M. (2019) · IEEE Solid-State Circuits Magazine · doi:10.1109/mssc.2019.2939337 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Self-citationPark, M., Eom, K., Lee, H.-S., Ku, S.-B., & Lee, H. (2023) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2023.3335158 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“The previous SCS systems were limited to the low-voltage (LV) operation and not capable of HV compliance [10], [17].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationLee, H.-S., & Lee, H. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2024.3427396 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Self-citationA Programmable EEG Monitoring SoC with Optical and Electrical Stimulation for Epilepsy Control
Lee, S.-Y., Tsou, C., Liao, Z.-X., Cheng, P.-H., Huang, P.-W., Lee, H.-Y., Lin, C. K., & Shieh, G.-S. (2020) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2020.2994217 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Reference [7] presented a wireless switched-capacitor solution for electrical/optical stimulation, where the feasibil-”
BackgroundSelf-citationEshaghi, F., Najafiaghdam, E., & Kassiri, H. (2021) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2021.3094766 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Short-Range Quality-Factor Modulation (SQuirM) for Low Power High Speed Inductive Data Transfer
Schormans, M., Jiang, D., Valente, V., & Demosthenous, A. (2019) · IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I Regular Papers · doi:10.1109/tcsi.2019.2922124 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“IMPLANTABLE medical devices (IMDs) have been the subject of much research and development, covering a wide range of potential applications, including neurostimulators [1], [2], pressure sensors [3], [4], and neural recording”
BackgroundCharge Balance Circuit for Constant Current Neural Stimulation with Less than 8 nC Residual Charge
Yigit, H. A., Ulusan, H., Chamanian, S., & Kulah, H. (2019) · 2019 IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems (ISCAS) · doi:10.1109/iscas.2019.8702790 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“The blocking capacitor [6] [7] and the electrode shorting [8] methods are the most widely used passive charge balance techniques.”
MethodEom, K., Lee, H.-S., Park, M., Yang, S. M., Choe, J. C., Hwang, S., Suh, Y.-W., & Lee, H. (2023) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2023.3334753 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“However, to estimate the charge transfer, the information about the approximate impedance range of ETI is required [15].”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationCui, K., Jin, Y., Fan, X., & Ma, Y. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2024.3366518 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Active Neural Interface Circuits and Systems for Selective Control of Peripheral Nerves: A Review
Habibollahi, M., Jiang, D., Lancashire, H. T., & Demosthenous, A. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2024.3430038 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Dehghan, K., Shoaei, O., & Ashtiani, S. J. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Circuits & Systems II Express Briefs · doi:10.1109/tcsii.2022.3166688 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“However, an implanted rechargeable battery regularly needs to be charged by an external source through a wireless power transmitter [2], [5].”
BackgroundA resonant current-mode wireless power transfer for implantable medical devices: an overview
Kim, J., Hassan, N. U., Lee, S., Jung, Y.-W., & Shin, S.-U. (2022) · Biomedical Engineering Letters · doi:10.1007/s13534-022-00231-1 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Design of a net-zero charge neural stimulator with feedback control
Liu, X., Zhang, M., Sun, H., Richardson, A. G., Lucas, T. H., & der Spiegel, J. V. (2014) · IEEE Biomedical Circuits and Systems Conference (BioCAS) · doi:10.1109/biocas.2014.6981770 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Jiang, D., Wu, Y., Almarri, N., Habibollahi, M., Liu, F., Bryson, J. B., Greensmith, L., & Demosthenous, A. (2021) · 2021 IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems (ISCAS) · doi:10.1109/iscas51556.2021.9401220 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“The ASICs reported in [5-7] provide optical only stimulation with recording units for action potentials and local field potentials, while the design in [8, 9] provide both optical and electrical stimulation but without sensing capability.”
BackgroundWireless multichannel optogenetic stimulators enabled by narrow bandwidth resonant tank circuits
Aldaoud, A., Soto-Breceda, A., Tong, W., Conductier, G., Tonta, M. A., Coleman, H. A., Parkington, H. C., Clarke, I. J., Redouté, J., Garrett, D. J., et al. (2017) · Sensors and Actuators A Physical · doi:10.1016/j.sna.2017.12.051 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Karamintziou, S. D., Custódio, A. L., Piallat, B., Polosan, M., Chabardès, S., Stathis, P. G., Tagaris, G. A., Sakas, D. E., Polychronaki, G. E., Tsirogiannis, G. L., et al. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0171458 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Karimi, M. J., Jin, M., Dehollain, C., & Schmid, A. (2024) · IEEE Open Journal of Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/ojcas.2024.3382355 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“There are different types of automatic tuning systems, classified based on the tuning method (SAR [9], [10] and monotonic sweeping [11], [12], [13], [14], [15]) and the detection target (rectified voltage/current or swing amplitude).”
BackgroundNeuroprosthesis Devices Based on Micro- and Nanosensors: A Systematic Review
Gutiérrez-Martínez, J., Toledo-Peral, C. L., Mercado-Gutierrez, J. A., Vera, A., & Leija, L. (2020) · Journal of Sensors · doi:10.1155/2020/8865889 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
A Wireless Implantable Potentiostat for Programmable Electrochemical Drug Delivery
Wang, M. L., Yeon, P., Chamberlayne, C. F., Mofidfar, M., Xu, H., Annes, J. P., Zare, R. N., & Arbabian, A. (2021) · IEEE Biomedical Circuits and Systems Conference (BioCAS) · doi:10.1109/biocas49922.2021.9644991 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
A 14-ENOB Delta-Sigma-Based Readout Architecture for ECoG Recording Systems
Ivanisevic, N., Rodriguez, S., & Rusu, A. (2018) · IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I Regular Papers · doi:10.1109/tcsi.2018.2838135 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Moreover, the corresponding magnitude of charge injection (≈ fC) is considerably lower than the magnitude that can be found in literature, for brain stimulation (≈ nC) [18]–[20].”
BackgroundDing, Y., Gu, X., Guo, X., Wu, S., & Lyu, H. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Circuits & Systems II Express Briefs · doi:10.1109/tcsii.2024.3365102 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Yao, D.-H., Hung, C.-C., Lo, W.-P., & Chen, P.-H. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I Regular Papers · doi:10.1109/tcsi.2024.3416170 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“On-off keying [12] offers strong immunity against noise and disturbances, but its intermittent power delivery poses challenges in achieving voltage regulation within the R X .”
BackgroundZhao, L., Gong, Y. P., Liu, X., Shi, W., Han, Y., Li, W., & Jia, Y. (2025) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2025.3532646 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Restrictions apply. current stimulation (CCS) [14], [25], [26], [27].”
Self-citationEom, K., Lee, H.-S., Ku, S.-B., Kang, J., Jung, H., Kim, T., Joo, J., Kim, T.-K., Shon, Y., & Lee, H. (2025) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2025.3542022 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“To enhance stimulation efficiency, research has explored innovative stimuli such as switched-capacitor stimulation (SCS) [28], [48] and high-frequency stimulation (HFS) [49], [50], [51].”
Self-citationLight Modulation of Brain and Development of Relevant Equipment
Li, X., Liu, C., & Wang, R. (2020) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-191240 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
A mm-Sized Free-Floating Wireless Implantable Opto-Electro Stimulation Device
Jia, Y., Gong, Y. P., Weber, A. J., Li, W., & Ghovanloo, M. (2020) · Micromachines · doi:10.3390/mi11060621 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“The built-in charger of the voltage doubler is part of the SCS architecture and takes care of charging CS [30].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationJia, Y., & Zhao, L. (2023) · IEEE Solid-State Circuits Magazine · doi:10.1109/mssc.2023.3305589 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“In [22], a switched-ca-pacitor-based stimulator (SCS) is used to address the loading issue [ Authorized licensed use limited to the terms of the applicable license agreement with IEEE.”
MethodInductively powered arbitrary-waveform adaptive-supply electro-optical neurostimulator
Kassiri, H., Salam, M. T., Chen, F., Vatankhahghadim, B., Soltani, N., Chang, M., Carlen, P. L., Valiante, T. A., & Genov, R. (2015) · IEEE Biomedical Circuits and Systems Conference (BioCAS) · doi:10.1109/biocas.2015.7348349 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Voltage-controlled stimulation (VCS) [3], currentcontrolled stimulation (CCS) [4] and switched-capacitor charge-base stimulation (SCS) [5] are the three existing methods to provide electrical stimulation to the body.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialTethered and Implantable Optical Sensors
Thompson, A. J., & Yang, G. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-69748-2_6 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Advances in Neural Recording and Stimulation Devices
Xu, J., Nguyen, A. T., & Yang, Z. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-813068-1.00013-0 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Lee, S.-Y., Liao, Z.-X., Feng, I.-T., Lee, H.-Y., & Lin, C. K. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2024.3380055 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationSelf-powered biomedical devices: biology, materials, and their interfaces
Zhuang, Y., Zhang, Q., Wan, Z., Geng, H., Xue, Z., & Cao, H. (2025) · Progress in Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1088/2516-1091/adaff2 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Towards a free-floating wireless implantable optogenetic stimulating system
Jia, Y., Lee, B., Mirbozorgi, S. A., Ghovanloo, M., Khan, W., & Li, W. (2017) · IEEE International Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems (MWSCAS) · doi:10.1109/mwscas.2017.8052940 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citation
- Authors
- Lee, H.-M., Kwon, K. Y., Li, W., & Ghovanloo, M.
- Affiliations
- Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
- Michigan State University (US)
- Venue
- IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits
- Published
- 2015-01
- Volume
- 50
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 360-374
- ISSN
- 0018-9200 (ISSN-L)
- 1558-173X
- OpenAlex
- W2083166398
- Cited by
- 161
- References
- 30
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 1
- FWCI
- 5.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Analog and Mixed-Signal Circuit Design
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Wireless Power Transfer Systems
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Neurology › Neurological disorders and treatments
- Keywords
- deep brain stimulation, wireless neural stimulation, power efficiency, inductive power transfer, optogenetic stimulation, micro-LED arrays, CMOS integrated circuit
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
