Gaze behavior and affect at 6 months: Predicting clinical outcomes and language development in typically developing infants and infants at risk for autism
Open accessAbstract
This paper presents follow‐up longitudinal data to research that previously suggested the possibility of abnormal gaze behavior marked by decreased eye contact in a subgroup of 6‐month‐old infants at risk for autism (Merin, Young, Ozonoff & Rogers, 2007). Using eye‐tracking data and behavioral data recorded during a live mother–infant interaction involving the still‐face procedure, the predictive utility of gaze behavior and affective behaviors at 6 months was examined using diagnostic outcome data obtained longitudinally over the following 18 months. Results revealed that none of the infants previously identified as showing lower rates of eye contact had any signs of autism at outcome. In contrast, three infants who were diagnosed with autism demonstrated consistent gaze to the eye region and typical affective responses at 6 months. Individual differences in face scanning and affective responsivity during the live interaction were not related to any continuous measures of symptom frequency or symptom severity. In contrast, results of growth curve models for language development revealed significant relationships between face scanning and expressive language. Greater amounts of fixation to the mother's mouth during live interaction predicted higher levels of expressive language at outcome and greater rates of growth. These findings suggest that although gaze behavior at 6 months may not provide early markers for autism as initially conceived, gaze to the mouth in particular may be useful in predicting individual differences in language development.
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Attention to faces in 6-month-old at-risk infants is not associated with later ASD diagnosis.
“This appears consistent with the surprising finding that attention to faces in 6 month old at-risk infants is not associated with later ASD diagnosis (Young, Merin, Rogers, & Ozonoff, 2009)”
From Atypical attentional networks and the emergence of autism (2013) · cites this paper as Young, Merin, Rogers, & Ozonoff, 2009
Previous studies have used the strategy of contrasting ASD with no ASD outcome collapsed across risk group.
“Several previous studies have also used the strategy of contrasting ASD with no ASD outcome collapsed across risk group [11, 67–72].”
Typical orienting to faces and eyes is measured in 6-month-old Sib-A during live interaction.
“Typical orienting to faces and eyes is measured in 6-months old Sib-A during live interaction (Ozonoff et al., 2010; Young, Merin, Rogers, & Ozonoff, 2009), but a decrease in orienting becomes apparent from 12 months (Ozonoff et al., 2010).”
From From early markers to neuro-developmental mechanisms of autism (2014) · cites this paper as Young, Merin, Rogers, & Ozonoff, 2009
Behavioral responses to the still face paradigm were found to be typical at 6 months in Sib-A.
“Behavioral responses to the ‘still face’ paradigm were measured in studies of high-risk infants, but were found to be typical at 6 months in Sib-A (Rozga et al., 2011; Young et al., 2009).”
From From early markers to neuro-developmental mechanisms of autism (2014) · cites this paper as Young et al., 2009
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Tables of the Freeman-Tukey transformations for the binomial and Poisson distributions
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“Consistent with prior research using the still-face paradigm (e.g., Gusella, Muir, & Tronick, 1988; Tarabulsy et al., 2003; Toda & Fogel, 1993; Tronick et al., 1978), all infants, regardless of risk-status, showed a significant decrease in smiling behavior and a significant increase in gaze…”
ResultVariability in outcome for children with an ASD diagnosis at age 2
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“Nevertheless, it might still be argued that speech perception is primarily, if not entirely dependent on acoustic properties of speech (Ohala, 1996) and that individual differences in early speech perception abilities have little to do with visual attention to the mouth.”
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Rapid visual-motion integration deficit in autism
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“Moreover, this deficit is consistent with more general accounts of significant deficits in cross-modal integration (e.g., see Iarocci & McDonald, 2006), and in the visual processing of biological motion (e.g., Blake, Turner, Smoski, Pozdol & Stone, 2003; Gepner & Mestre, 2002).”
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BackgroundThe Very Early Autism Phenotype
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“Consistent with prior research using the still-face paradigm (e.g., Gusella, Muir, & Tronick, 1988; Tarabulsy et al., 2003; Toda & Fogel, 1993; Tronick et al., 1978), all infants, regardless of risk-status, showed a significant decrease in smiling behavior and a significant increase in gaze aversion and negative affec…”
ResultNewborn categorization of vowel‐like sounds
Aldridge, M. A., Stillman, R. D., & Bower, T. G. R. (2001) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/1467-7687.00167 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
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Chawarska, K., Macari, S., & Shic, F. (2013) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.11.022 · Cited by 623 · see citing works
“Consistent with another report of 6-month-olds with ASD (27), no marked differences were found in the distribution of their attention to eyes or mouth.”
Developmental pathways to autism: A review of prospective studies of infants at risk
Jones, E. J. H., Gliga, T., Bedford, R., Charman, T., & Johnson, M. H. (2014) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.12.001 · Cited by 607 · see citing works
Infants deploy selective attention to the mouth of a talking face when learning speech
Lewkowicz, D. J., & Tift, A. H. (2012) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1114783109 · Cited by 526 · see citing works
“mother’s mouth at 6 mo score higher on expressive language, size of vocabulary, and socialization measures at 24 mo of age (42).”
BackgroundPreference for geometric patterns early in life as a risk factor for autism
Pierce, K., Conant, D., Hazin, R., Stoner, R., & Desmond, J. (2011) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.113 · Cited by 486 · see citing works
“5) [12-41] 24.”
Visual social attention in autism spectrum disorder: Insights from eye tracking studies
Guillon, Q., Hadjikhani, N. K., Baduel, S., & Rogé, B. (2014) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.03.013 · Cited by 507 · see citing works
Early Identification of Autism Spectrum Disorder: Recommendations for Practice and Research
Zwaigenbaum, L., Bauman, M. L., Stone, W. L., Yirmiya, N., Estes, A. M., Hansen, R. L., McPartland, J. C., Natowicz, M. R., Choueiri, R., FEIN, D. A., et al. (2015) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2014-3667c · Cited by 512 · see citing works
Atypical eye contact in autism: models, mechanisms and development
Senju, A., & Johnson, M. H. (2009) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.06.001 · Cited by 454 · see citing works
“study revealed that this increased mouth fixation did not predict later diagnosis of ASD in high-risk or in control infants (Young et al., 2009).”
Infant neural sensitivity to dynamic eye gaze is associated with later emerging autism
Elsabbagh, M., Mercure, E., Hudry, K., Chandler, S., Pasco, G., Charman, T., Pickles, A., Baron-Cohen, S., Bolton, P., & Johnson, M. H. (2012) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2011.12.056 · Cited by 429 · see citing works
“In fact, one study reported that normative face-scanning patterns modulate later language outcomes in both infants at risk for autismandcontrol groups [25].”
Atypical attentional networks and the emergence of autism
Keehn, B., Müller, R.-A., & Townsend, J. (2013) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.11.014 · Cited by 412 · see citing works
Language and Communication in Autism
Kim, S. H., Paul, R., Tager-Flusberg, H. B., & Lord, C. (2014) · doi:10.1002/9781118911389.hautc10 · Cited by 392 · see citing works
Pierce, K., Marinero, S., Hazin, R., McKenna, B. S., Barnes, C. C., & Malige, A. (2015) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.03.032 · Cited by 382 · see citing works
“One eye-tracking study attempted individual-level classification based on the hypothesis that reduced fixation toward the eye region at 6 months old would predict diagnostic status at 24–36 months old but found that this measure did not accurately classify individual toddlers as having ASD (19).”
What are infant siblings teaching us about autism in infancy?
Rogers, S. J. (2009) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.81 · Cited by 351 · see citing works
“However, none of the gaze or affect variables gathered at 6 months showed any relationship to autism-related variables at 24 months [Young et al., 2009].”
BackgroundSelf-citationRelation between early motor delay and later communication delay in infants at risk for autism
Bhat, A. N., Galloway, J. C., & Landa, R. J. (2012) · Infant Behavior and Development · doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2012.07.019 · Cited by 329 · see citing works
Context modulates attention to social scenes in toddlers with autism
Chawarska, K., Macari, S., & Shic, F. (2012) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02538.x · Cited by 317 · see citing works
Developmental Trajectories in Children With and Without Autism Spectrum Disorders: The First 3 Years
Landa, R. J., Gross, A. L., Stuart, E. A., & Faherty, A. (2013) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01870.x · Cited by 316 · see citing works
Eye tracking in early autism research
Falck‐Ytter, T., Bölte, S., & Gredebäck, G. (2013) · Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders · doi:10.1186/1866-1955-5-28 · Cited by 306 · see citing works
“However, none of the studies suggested that young infants (<12 months of age) who later receive an ASD diagnosis distribute their gaze across specific facial features (for example, mouth versus eyes) differently from control children [8,34-37].”
BackgroundInfluentialNakano, T., Tanaka, K., Endo, Y., Yamane, Y., Yamamoto, T., Nakano, Y., Ohta, H., Kato, N., & Kitazawa, S. (2010) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.0587 · Cited by 280 · see citing works
“…human voices (Gervais et al. 2004), a better perception of objects than the eye as revealed in slit viewing in which participants named an object that moved behind a narrow slit (Nakano et al. 2009) and larger brain event-related potentials to objects (Webb et al. 2006) than in typical controls.”
BackgroundDifference or disorder? Cultural issues in understanding neurodevelopmental disorders.
Norbury, C., & Sparks, A. (2012) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0027446 · Cited by 266 · see citing works
Rozga, A., Hutman, T., Young, G. S., Rogers, S. J., Ozonoff, S., Dapretto, M., & Sigman, M. (2011) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-010-1051-6 · Cited by 266 · see citing works
“Keywords Autism Broader autism phenotype Early identification Mother–infant interaction Still face procedure Nonverbal communication”
BackgroundSelf-citationAutism spectrum disorder: advances in diagnosis and evaluation
Zwaigenbaum, L., & Penner, M. (2018) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.k1674 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
The development of face orienting mechanisms in infants at-risk for autism
Elsabbagh, M., Gliga, T., Pickles, A., Hudry, K., Charman, T., & Johnson, M. H. (2013) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2012.07.030 · Cited by 257 · see citing works
Annual Research Review: Infant development, autism, and ADHD – early pathways to emerging disorders
Johnson, M. H., Gliga, T., Jones, E. J. H., & Charman, T. (2014) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12328 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
“Responses to the ‘still face’ – which may index early social motivation – are also typical at 6 months of age (Rozga et al., 2011; Young et al., 2009).”
BackgroundSpeech Disturbs Face Scanning in 6-Month-Old Infants Who Develop Autism Spectrum Disorder
Shic, F., Macari, S., & Chawarska, K. (2014) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.07.009 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
“(4) Eye-to-Mouth Ratio – eye-looking time / (eyelooking time + mouth-looking time)(47; 63; 75).”
Yirmiya, N., & Charman, T. (2010) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02214.x · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Davis, N. O., & Carter, A. S. (2014) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118911389.hautc09 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Limited activity monitoring in toddlers with autism spectrum disorder
Shic, F., Bradshaw, J. L., Klin, A. J., Scassellati, B. M., & Chawarska, K. (2010) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2010.11.074 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
Latent class analysis of early developmental trajectory in baby siblings of children with autism
Landa, R. J., Gross, A. L., Stuart, E. A., & Bauman, M. L. (2012) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02558.x · Cited by 200 · see citing works
“…developmental delay, especially for children with ASD who exhibit a prodrome that extends at least through mid-infancy (Landa & Garrett-Mayer, 2006; Ozonoff et al., 2010; Young et al., 2009), even though brain development may be altered at that age (Elsabbagh et al., 2012; Wolff et al., 2012).”
BackgroundThe role of alexithymia in reduced eye-fixation in autism spectrum conditions
Bird, G., Press, C., & Richardson, D. C. (2011) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1183-3 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
“Young et al. (2009) studied the gaze behaviour of 6 month-old infants, some of which were considered at-risk for autism due to having affected siblings.”
BackgroundBiomarkers in autism spectrum disorder: the old and the new
Ruggeri, B., Sarkans, U., Schumann, G., & Persico, A. M. (2013) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-013-3290-7 · Cited by 191 · see citing works
“High-risk infant sibling studies suggest that greater mouth over eyes fixation recorded as early as at 6–9 months is associated not with autism per se but with superior verbal language development at 24–36 months, which in turn reduces autism severity (Young et al. 2009; Elsabbagh et al. 2013).”
BackgroundJones, E. J. H., Venema, K., Earl, R., Lowy, R., Barnes, K., Estes, A., Dawson, G., & Webb, S. J. (2016) · Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders · doi:10.1186/s11689-016-9139-8 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Parent–infant interaction and children’s language development
Topping, K. J., Dekhinet, R., & Zeedyk, S. (2012) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2012.744159 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
The development of autism spectrum disorders: variability and causal complexity
Wozniak, R. H., Leezenbaum, N. B., Northrup, J. B., West, K. L., & Iverson, J. M. (2016) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Cognitive Science · doi:10.1002/wcs.1426 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
From early markers to neuro-developmental mechanisms of autism
Gliga, T., Jones, E. J. H., Bedford, R., Charman, T., & Johnson, M. H. (2014) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2014.05.003 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
“Behavioral responses to the ‘still face’ paradigm were measured in studies of high-risk infants, but were found to be typical at 6 months in Sib-A (Rozga et al., 2011; Young et al., 2009).”
Attention to the mouth and gaze following in infancy predict language development
Tenenbaum, E. J., Sobel, D. M., Sheinkopf, S. J., Malle, B. F., & Morgan, J. L. (2014) · Journal of Child Language · doi:10.1017/s0305000914000725 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
“One study demonstrated that infants who attend to their mother’s mouths during communication (via live video feed) at 6 months have larger productive vocabulary sizes in toddlerhood (Young et al., 2009).”
InfluentialElsabbagh, M., Bedford, R., Senju, A., Charman, T., Pickles, A. R., Johnson, M. H., & The BASIS Team (2013) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nst012 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
“We replicated the observation that more looking towards the mouth relative to the eyes in dynamic communicative scenes predicts superior later EL (Young et al., 2009).”
InfluentialSound before meaning: Word learning in autistic disorders
Norbury, C., Griffiths, H., & Nation, K. (2010) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.10.015 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Autism and the Social Brain: The First-Year Puzzle
Elsabbagh, M., & Johnson, M. H. (2016) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2016.02.019 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
How special is social looking in ASD
Falck‐Ytter, T., & von Hofsten, C. (2011) · Progress in brain research · doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-53884-0.00026-9 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Murias, M., Major, S. T., Davlantis, K. S., Franz, L., Harris, A., Rardin, B. P., Sabatos‐DeVito, M., & Dawson, G. (2017) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1894 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Investigating Gaze of Children with ASD in Naturalistic Settings
Noris, B., Nadel, J., Barker, M., Hadjikhani, N. K., & Billard, A. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0044144 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
“In a longitudinal study of at-risk infants, [26] analyzed the gaze towards the face of their mother and did not find a significant correlation between gaze towards the eyes at six months of age and diagnosis of autism.”
BackgroundAttention Allocation in ASD: a Review and Meta-analysis of Eye-Tracking Studies
Chita-Tegmark, M. (2016) · Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s40489-016-0077-x · Cited by 127 · see citing works
“measured in several studies by computing eye-mouth ratios (Shic et al. 2014; Elsabbagh et al. 2014; Young et al. 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialTenenbaum, E. J., Shah, R. J., Sobel, D. M., Malle, B. F., & Morgan, J. L. (2012) · Infancy · doi:10.1111/j.1532-7078.2012.00135.x · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Genetic Influence on Eye Movements to Complex Scenes at Short Timescales
Kennedy, D. P., D'Onofrio, B. M., Quinn, P. D., Bölte, S., Lichtenstein, P., & Falck‐Ytter, T. (2017) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2017.10.007 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
“Indeed, even subtle initial differences in looking behavior, which may be influenced by one’s genetic makeup, may over time contribute to divergent developmental trajectories [3, 10].”
Identifying Autism in a Brief Observation
Gabrielsen, T. P., Farley, M. A., Speer, L. L., Villalobos, M., Baker, C. N., & Miller, J. S. (2015) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2014-1428 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Practitioner’s Guide to Assessment of Autism Spectrum Disorders in Infants and Toddlers
Steiner, A. M., Goldsmith, T. R., Snow, A. V., & Chawarska, K. (2011) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1376-9 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
“…to have relatively intact eye contact and social smile at 6 months of age (Bryson et al. 2007; Landa and Garrett-Mayer 2006; Ozonoff et al. 2010; Young et al. 2009; Zwaigenbaum et al. 2005), with the frequency and quality of these social behaviors declining between 6 and 12 months (Ozonoff et…”
The origins of social impairments in autism spectrum disorder: Studies of infants at risk
Tager-Flusberg, H. B. (2010) · Neural Networks · doi:10.1016/j.neunet.2010.07.008 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Language Development in the First Year of Life
Levine, D., Strother‐Garcia, K., Golinkoff, R. M., & Hirsh‐Pasek, K. (2016) · Otology & Neurotology · doi:10.1097/mao.0000000000000908 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Reduced Face Preference in Infancy: A Developmental Precursor to Callous-Unemotional Traits?
Bedford, R., Pickles, A. R., Sharp, H. M., Wright, N., & Hill, J. (2014) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.09.022 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
“Infant studies tend to fi nd typical or even increased looking time to faces in infants who later develop autism (52 – 55).”
Hessels, R. S., Holleman, G. A., Cornelissen, T. H. W., Hooge, I. T. C., & Kemner, C. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Psychopathology · doi:10.5127/jep.062917 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
“…infants at risk for ASD looked less at the eyes of their mother when that mother maintained a still face halfway through a period of normal interaction compared to infants who were not at risk for ASD (Merin et al., 2007), although this did not subsequently predict ASD outcome (Young et al., 2009).”
A World Unto Itself: Human Communication as Active Inference
Vasil, J., Badcock, P. B., Constant, A., Friston, K. J., & Ramstead, M. J. D. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00417 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Campbell, D. J., Shic, F., Macari, S. L., & Chawarska, K. (2013) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-013-1885-9 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
“…Center, Yale University School of Medicine, 40 Temple St, Suite 7D, New Haven, CT 06510, USA e-mail: Katarzyna.Chawarska@yale.edu et al. 2002; Norbury et al. 2009) as well as in infants and toddlers (Chawarska et al. 2012; Jones et al. 2008; Pierce et al. 2011; Shic et al. 2010; Young et al. 2009).”
BackgroundInside bilingualism: Language background modulates selective attention to a talker's mouth
Birulés, J., Bosch, L., Brieke, R., Pons, F., & Lewkowicz, D. J. (2018) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12755 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Tsang, T., Atagi, N., & Johnson, S. P. (2018) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2018.01.002 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Braukmann, R., Lloyd‐Fox, S., Blasi, A., Johnson, M. H., Harold Bekkering, A., Buitelaar, J. K., & Hunnius, S. (2017) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.13751 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
“, 2007) while not being related to a later ASD diagnosis (Young et al., 2009), while others have shown that early neural responses can be associated with later diagnoses of ASD (Elsabbagh et al.”
BackgroundPsychophysiological Methods and Developmental Psychopathology
Zisner, A. R., & Beauchaine, T. P. (2016) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119125556.devpsy222 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Sensing Technologies for Autism Spectrum Disorder Screening and Intervention
Cabibihan, J., Javed, H., Aldosari, M., Frazier, T. W., & Bashir, H. E. (2016) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s17010046 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Garrido, D., Petrova, D., Watson, L. R., García‐Retamero, R., & Carballo, G. (2017) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1829 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Response to distress in infants at risk for autism: a prospective longitudinal study
Hutman, T., Rozga, A., DeLaurentis, A. D., Barnwell, J. M., Sugar, C. A., & Sigman, M. (2010) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02270.x · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Key, A. P. F., & Stone, W. L. (2012) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1231 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“In a combined sample of 6-month-olds at average and high risk for ASD, looking at the mouth was predictive of better language skills at 2 years of age [Young et al., 2009].”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMicai, M., Fulceri, F., Caruso, A., Guzzetta, A., Gila, L., & Scattoni, M. L. (2020) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.06.027 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
How Children With Specific Language Impairment View Social Situations: An Eye Tracking Study
Hosozawa, M., Tanaka, K., Shimizu, T., Nakano, T., & Kitazawa, S. (2012) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2011-2278 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Pons, F., Bosch, L., & Lewkowicz, D. J. (2019) · Infant Behavior and Development · doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2018.12.003 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Scerif, G. (2010) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.01013.x · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Oakes, L. M., & Ellis, A. E. (2011) · Infancy · doi:10.1111/j.1532-7078.2011.00107.x · Cited by 75 · see citing works
The organization and reorganization of audiovisual speech perception in the first year of life
Danielson, D. K., Bruderer, A. G., Kandhadai, P., Vatikiotis‐Bateson, E., & Werker, J. F. (2017) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2017.02.004 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Franchini, M., Duku, E., Armstrong, V. L., Brian, J. A., Bryson, S. E., Garon, N., Roberts, W., Roncadin, C., Zwaigenbaum, L., & Smith, I. M. (2018) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-018-3607-9 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
“Studies in HR-Sibs have further demonstrated the role of motor skills and gaze behavior (more gazing at mouth) from 6 months in predicting language development (Bhat et al. 2012; LeBarton and Iverson 2013; Leonard et al. 2015; West et al. 2017; Young et al. 2009).”
BackgroundFuture Directions for Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders
Damiano, C. R., Mazefsky, C. A., White, S. W., & Dichter, G. S. (2014) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2014.945214 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Preterm birth is associated with atypical social orienting in infancy detected using eye tracking
Telford, E. J., Fletcher‐Watson, S., Gillespie‐Smith, K., Pataky, R., Sparrow, S. A., Murray, I. C., O'Hare, A. E., & Boardman, J. P. (2016) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12546 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Gangi, D. N., Ibañez, L. V., & Messinger, D. S. (2013) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-013-2002-9 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“For example, early differences in infants’ gaze patterns—less fixation to the eyes relative to the mouth in a mother-infant interaction at 6 months—were characteristic of a high-risk group, but this pattern was not associated with later ASD outcome (Young et al. 2009).”
BackgroundCan family affectedness inform infant sibling outcomes of autism spectrum disorders?
Schwichtenberg, A. J., Young, G. S., Sigman, M., Hutman, T., & Ozonoff, S. (2010) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02267.x · Cited by 67 · see citing works
“Previous infant sibling studies have assessed whether differences in visual fixation and disengagement (Zwaigenbaum, 2005), face processing (Young et al., 2009), early communication and joint attention behaviors (Landa & Garrett-Mayer, 2006), object exploration (Ozonoff et al.”
BackgroundSelf-citationSwanson, M. R., Serlin, G., & Siller, M. (2012) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-012-1616-7 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“However, in a follow up study reduced gaze to the eyes at 6 months was not related to symptom severity or symptom frequency at 24 months (Young et al. 2009).”
BackgroundIs mere exposure enough? The effects of bilingual environments on infant cognitive development
D’Souza, D., Brady, D., Haensel, J. X., & D’Souza, H. (2020) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.180191 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
“Insight may come from two infant studies which demonstrated that selective attention to a talking mouth (versus eyes) facilitates concurrent language learning [32] and predicts later expressive language development [33].”
Advances in the early detection of autism
Zwaigenbaum, L. (2010) · Current Opinion in Neurology · doi:10.1097/wco.0b013e3283372430 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Mastergeorge, A. M., Kahathuduwa, C. N., & Blume, J. (2020) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04731-w · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Atypical Hemispheric Specialization for Faces in Infants at Risk for Autism Spectrum Disorder
Keehn, B., Vogel‐Farley, V., Tager‐Flusberg, H., & Nelson, C. A. (2015) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1438 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“Equivalent patterns of attention between HRA and LRC infants has been shown at 6-(Young, Merin, Rogers, & Ozonoff, 2009), 9-(Key & Stone, 2012), and 12-months (Dundas et al., 2012).”
de Boisferon, A. H., Tift, A. H., Minar, N. J., & Lewkowicz, D. J. (2016) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12381 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“…studies with infants older than 6 months of age (Hunnius & Geuze, 2004; Lewkowicz & Hansen-Tift, 2012; Pons et al., 2015; Tenenbaum et al., 2013; Young et al., 2009) and suggests that the attentional shift to the mouth by 8 months of age reflects the emergence of an explicit interest in…”
BackgroundResultKwon, M., Moore, A., Barnes, C. C., Cha, D., & Pierce, K. (2019) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2018.12.011 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Righi, G., Tenenbaum, E. J., McCormick, C. E. B., Blossom, M., Amso, D., & Sheinkopf, S. J. (2018) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1918 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“A number of studies have demonstrated that attention to the mouth and eyes is correlated with greater success in language learning [Tenenbaum et al., 2014; Young et al., 2009].”
BackgroundAttention and word learning in autistic, language delayed and typically developing children
Tenenbaum, E. J., Amso, D., Abar, B. W., & Sheinkopf, S. J. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00490 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“Young et al. (2009) posited that attention to the mouth facilitates language development because infants who make use of visual information are better able to process the speech stream by relying on their already developed audiovisual integration.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialShic, F., Wang, Q., Macari, S. L., & Chawarska, K. (2019) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13118 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Infancy Guidelines for Publishing Eye‐Tracking Data
Oakes, L. M. (2010) · Infancy · doi:10.1111/j.1532-7078.2010.00030.x · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Processing of novel and familiar faces in infants at average and high risk for autism
Key, A. P. F., & Stone, W. L. (2011) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2011.12.003 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Early social communication development in infants with autism spectrum disorder
Bradshaw, J. L., McCracken, C., Pileggi, M. L., Brane, N., Delehanty, A. D., Day, T. N., Federico, A., Klaiman, C., Saulnier, C. A., Klin, A., et al. (2021) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13683 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Multilevel Differences in Spontaneous Social Attention in Toddlers With Autism Spectrum Disorder
Chawarska, K., Ye, S., Shic, F., & Chen, L. (2015) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12473 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
The influence of bilingualism on the preference for the mouth region of dynamic faces
Ayneto, A., & Sebastián‐Gallés, N. (2016) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12446 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Neonatal imitation predicts how infants engage with faces
Paukner, A., Simpson, E. A., Ferrari, P. F., Mrozek, T., & Suomi, S. J. (2014) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12207 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
The role of early visual attention in social development
Wagner, J., Luyster, R., Yim, J. Y., Tager-Flusberg, H. B., & Nelson, C. A. (2013) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025412468064 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
The redeployment of attention to the mouth of a talking face during the second year of life
de Boisferon, A. H., Tift, A. H., Minar, N. J., & Lewkowicz, D. J. (2018) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2018.03.009 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Fujioka, T., Tsuchiya, K. J., Saito, M., Hirano, Y., Matsuo, M., Kikuchi, M., Maegaki, Y., Choi, D., Kato, S., Yoshida, T., et al. (2020) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/s13229-020-00321-w · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“5 years (6 months) old predicted expressive language at 2 years old [68], and participants up to 5 years who show significant language development may gaze longer at the mouth region at approximately 5 years old even in the faces without mouth motion.”
BackgroundInfants at risk for autism: a European perspective on current status, challenges and opportunities
Bölte, S., Marschik, P. B., Falck‐Ytter, T., Charman, T., Roeyers, H., & Elsabbagh, M. (2013) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-012-0368-4 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“On the other hand, in a recent US study decreased eye contact in high-risk siblings at 6 months was not related at all to ASD outcome at 24 months [16, 26].”
BackgroundDundas, E. M., Gastgeb, H. Z., & Strauss, M. (2012) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-012-1523-y · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Early Social Experience Affects the Development of Eye Gaze Processing
Senju, A., Vernetti, A., Ganea, N., Hudry, K., Tucker, L. A., Charman, T., & Johnson, M. H. (2015) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2015.10.019 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“As past studies indicated the possible relationship between language development and face scanning [8, 14, 15] or gaze”
BackgroundDyadic Synchrony and Responsiveness in the First Year: Associations with Autism Risk
Kellerman, A. M., Schwichtenberg, A. J., Abu‐Zhaya, R., Miller, M. R., Young, G. S., & Ozonoff, S. J. (2020) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.2373 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“Consistent with previous research, dyadic behaviors during the first year did distinguish between familial-risk status/outcome classifications and more optimal dyadic behaviors were associated with better language skills, regardless of outcome status [e.g., Young et al., 2009].”
ResultSelf-citationVisual attention and autistic behavior in infants with fragile X syndrome
Roberts, J. E., Hatton, D. D., Long, A. C. J., Anello, V., & Colombo, J. (2012) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1316-8 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
The Bidirectional Social-Cognitive Mechanisms of the Social-Attention Symptoms of Autism
Mundy, P. C., & Bullen, J. C. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.752274 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
de Klerk, C. C. J. M., Gliga, T., Charman, T., & Johnson, M. H. (2013) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12141 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Application of Eye Tracking Technology in Medicine: A Bibliometric Analysis
Zammarchi, G., & Conversano, C. (2021) · Vision · doi:10.3390/vision5040056 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“00 Face processing [31] Nacewicz et al.”
Autism spectrum disorder in infancy
Brian, J. A., Bryson, S. E., & Zwaigenbaum, L. (2015) · Current Opinion in Neurology · doi:10.1097/wco.0000000000000182 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Infants at risk of autism and developmental disorders: Establishing early social skills.
Neimy, H., Peláez, M., Carrow, J. N., Monlux, K. D., & Tarbox, J. (2017) · Behavioral Development · doi:10.1037/bdb0000046 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“For example, home videos of children with autism and typically developing children at 1 and 2 years of age revealed significantly lower levels of facial recognition, pointing, reaching, eye contact, gaze shifting, and joint attention when compared with typically developing children (Adrien et al., 1992; Osterling & Da…”
BackgroundFranchini, M., Armstrong, V. L., Schaer, M., & Smith, I. M. (2018) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2018.1490706 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
- Authors
- Young, G. S., Merin, N., Rogers, S. J., & Ozonoff, S.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Davis (US)
- Corresponding author
- Young, Gregory S.
- Venue
- Developmental Science
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2009-08-11
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 798-814
- ISSN
- 1363-755X (ISSN-L)
- 1467-7687
- PMC
- PMC2732664
- OpenAlex
- W2034621560
- Cited by
- 368
- References
- 66
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 27 · 2021: 28 · 2020: 56 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 29 · 2015: 25 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 25 · 2012: 22
- FWCI
- 9.52
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Developmental Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH068398)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Language Development and Disorders
- Keywords
- gaze behavior, eye contact, autism risk, infants, facial scanning, expressive language development, still-face procedure, mother-infant interaction, language outcome prediction
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Affect, Attention, Autistic Disorder, Child Development, Child, Preschool, Communication, Female, Fixation, Ocular, Humans, Infant, Language Development, Male, Mother-Child Relations, Neuropsychological Tests, Predictive Value of Tests, Risk Factors, Chi-Square Distribution
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