Understanding and Addressing Contemporary Racism: From Aversive Racism to the Common Ingroup Identity Model
Abstract
This article describes our collaborative research on aversive racism and a strategy we developed to combat it, the Common Ingroup Identity Model. In addition, we reveal some details about our personal and professional relationship in pursuit of our scientific agenda. We begin by discussing evidence for the existence of aversive racism, a subtle, unintentional form bias that can have pernicious effects. Then we review research concerning how a common ingroup identity can combat aversive racism by redirecting the forces of social categorization and social identity, such that “Us” and “Them” are regarded as “We.” We conclude with a brief discussion of where we may look next for clues toward helping to achieve a fairer, more just society.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In one study, White participants ranked White and Black job candidates; when applicants were very weak or very strong, participants showed no discrimination against Black candidates, but when candidates were moderately qualified, White participants recommended Black candidates significantly less often than White candidates.
“In one study, White participants were presented with interview excerpts and asked to rank White and Black job candidates.When applicants were either very weak or very strong, the participants did not exhibit any discrimination against the Black candidates.Yet in less clear situations, when candidates were moderately qualified, the White study participants recommended Black candidates significantly”
From In Pursuit of Antiracist Social Justice: Denaturalizing Whiteness in the Academic Library (2015) · cites this paper as Gaertner & Dovidio, 2005
Cites
Advances In Experimental Social Psychology
(2022) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(22)x0002-6 · Cited by 22,559 · see citing works
An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (2000) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780199269464.003.0005 · Cited by 12,620 · see citing works
The Social psychology of intergroup relations
Austin, W. G., & Worchel, S. (1979) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 11,577 · see citing works
Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes
Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.102.1.4 · Cited by 6,682 · see citing works
Pettigrew, T. F. (1998) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.65 · Cited by 6,001 · see citing works
Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components
Devine, P. G. (1989) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.56.1.5 · Cited by 5,673 · see citing works
Sidanius, J., & Felicia Pratto, B. (1999) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139175043 · Cited by 3,632 · see citing works
In-group bias in the minimal intergroup situation: A cognitive-motivational analysis.
Brewer, M. B. (1979) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.86.2.307 · Cited by 3,411 · see citing works
Social dominance: an intergroup theory of social hierarchy and oppression
(2000) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.37-3413 · Cited by 3,374 · see citing works
Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of responsibility.
Darley, J. M., & Latane, B. (1968) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0025589 · Cited by 3,083 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Feelings of responsibility play a key role (see Darley & Latané, 1968).”
BackgroundIntergroup Conflict And Cooperation: The Robbers Cave Experiment
Sherif, M. (2013) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 2,344 · see citing works
Fázio, R. H., Jackson, J. R., Dunton, B. C., & Williams, C. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.69.6.1013 · Cited by 2,342 · see citing works
(2000) · Cited by 2,172 · see citing works
Self-citationAn American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy.
Young, K., Myrdal, G., Sterner, R., & Rose, A. M. (1944) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2086087 · Cited by 2,017 · see citing works
Subtle and blatant prejudice in Western Europe
Pettigrew, T. F., & Meertens, R. W. (1995) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420250106 · Cited by 1,948 · see citing works
Fazio, R. H., Jackson, J. R., Dunton, B. C., & Williams, C. J. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.6.1013 · Cited by 1,793 · cited 1× · see citing works
“In particular, we proposed that conscious and unconscious attitudes influence behavior in different ways and under different conditions (Dovidio, Kawakami, & Gaertner, 2002; Dovidio et al., 1997; Fazio et al., 1995).”
BackgroundImplicit and explicit prejudice and interracial interaction.
Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., & Gaertner, S. L. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.82.1.62 · Cited by 1,567 · see citing works
Self-citationImplicit and explicit prejudice and interracial interaction.
Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., & Gaertner, S. L. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.82.1.62 · Cited by 1,567 · see citing works
Self-citationThe common ingroup identity model: recategorization and the reduction of intergroup bias.
Gaertner, S. L., Dovidio, J. F., Anastasio, P. A., Bachman, B. A., & Rust, M. C. (1993) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/14792779343000004 · Cited by 1,559 · see citing works
Self-citationAn integrative theory of intergroup contact
Brown, R. J., & Hewstone, M. (2005) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(05)37005-5 · Cited by 1,512 · see citing works
Cognitive Processes in Stereotyping and Intergroup Behavior
Hamilton, D. L. (2015) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315668758 · Cited by 1,501 · see citing works
On the Nature of Prejudice: Automatic and Controlled Processes
Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., Johnson, C., Johnson, B., & Howard, A. (1997) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.1997.1331 · Cited by 1,270 · see citing works
Self-citationGaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (1986) · Cited by 1,182 · see citing works
Self-citationAversive Racism and Selection Decisions: 1989 and 1999
Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (2000) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00262 · Cited by 1,153 · see citing works
Self-citationPrejudice, Discrimination, and Racism
Dovidio, J., & Gaertner, S. (1986) · SAGE Publications Ltd eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781446217566.n6 · Cited by 1,088 · see citing works
McConnell, A. R., & Leibold, J. M. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.2000.1470 · Cited by 1,001 · see citing works
Beyond the Contact Hypothesis: Theoretical Perspectives on Desegregation
Brewer, M. B., & Miller, N. (1984) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-497780-8.50019-x · Cited by 883 · see citing works
Reducing intergroup bias: The benefits of recategorization.
Gaertner, S. L., Mann, J., Murrell, A. J., & Dovidio, J. F. (1989) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.57.2.239 · Cited by 814 · see citing works
Self-citationAn American Dilemma; The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy
Furfey, P. H., Myrdal, G., Sterner, R., & Rose, A. M. (1944) · The American Catholic Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/3706530 · Cited by 784 · see citing works
Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (2004) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(04)36001-6 · Cited by 650 · see citing works
Self-citationSocial Discrimination and Tolerance in Intergroup Relations: Reactions to Intergroup Difference
Mummendey, A., & Wenzel, M. (1999) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0302_4 · Cited by 643 · see citing works
Why can't we just get along? Interpersonal biases and interracial distrust.
Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. E., Kawakami, K., & Hodson, G. (2002) · Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/1099-9809.8.2.88 · Cited by 593 · see citing works
Self-citationRacial stereotypes: The contents of their cognitive representations
Dovidio, J. F., Evans, N., & Tyler, R. B. (1986) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(86)90039-9 · Cited by 568 · see citing works
Self-citation(1998) · Cited by 478 · see citing works
Extending the Benefits of Recategorization: Evaluations, Self-Disclosure, and Helping
Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L., Validzic, A., Matoka, K., Johnson, B., & Frazier, S. (1997) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.1997.1327 · Cited by 470 · see citing works
Self-citationHornsey, M. J., & Hogg, M. A. (2000) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167200264010 · Cited by 421 · see citing works
How does cooperation reduce intergroup bias?
Gaertner, S. L., Mann, J. A., Dovidio, J. F., Murrell, A. J., & Pomare, M. (1990) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.59.4.692 · Cited by 408 · see citing works
Self-citationRacial Stereotypes: Associations and Ascriptions of Positive and Negative Characteristics
Gaertner, S. L., & McLaughlin, J. P. (1983) · Social Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.2307/3033657 · Cited by 405 · see citing works
Self-citationIntergroup bias: Status, differentiation, and a common in-group identity.
Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L., & Validzic, A. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.109 · Cited by 365 · see citing works
Self-citationDovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (1998) · Cited by 328 · see citing works
Self-citationBlackwell handbook in social psychology
Clark, M., & Fletcher, G. J. O. (2000) · University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) · Cited by 327 · see citing works
The subtlety of White racism, arousal, and helping behavior.
Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (1977) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.35.10.691 · Cited by 320 · see citing works
Self-citationProcesses in Racial Discrimination: Differential Weighting of Conflicting Information
Hodson, G., Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (2002) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167202287004 · Cited by 303 · see citing works
Self-citationCohen, M. J., & Kovel, J. (1972) · The Journal of Interdisciplinary History · doi:10.2307/202320 · Cited by 264 · see citing works
Differences in Helping Whites and Blacks: A Meta-Analysis
Saucier, D. A., Miller, C. T., & Doucet, N. (2005) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0901_1 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Implicit and Explicit Attitudes: Examination of the Relationship between Measures of Intergroup Bias
Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., & Beach, K. R. (2003) · doi:10.1002/9780470693421.ch9 · Cited by 229 · see citing works
Self-citationChanging Interracial Evaluations and Behavior: The Effects of a Common Group Identity
Nier, J. A., Gaertner, S. L., Dovidio, J. F., Banker, B. S., Ward, C. M., & Rust, M. C. (2001) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430201004004001 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
Self-citationInterracial Interactions: A Relational Approach
Shelton, J. N., & Richeson, J. A. (2006) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(06)38003-3 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
Forms of Racism and the Cumulative Dimension of Ethnic Attitudes
Kleinpenning, G., & Hagendoorn, L. (1993) · Social Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.2307/2786643 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
Developing a More Inclusive Social Identity: An Elementary School Intervention
Houlette, M. A., Gaertner, S. L., Johnson, K. M., Banker, B. S., Riek, B. M., & Dovidio, J. F. (2004) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/j.0022-4537.2004.00098.x · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Self-citationGaertner, S. L., Rust, M. C., Dovidio, J. F., Bachman, B. A., & Anastasio, P. A. (1996) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781483327648.n10 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
Self-citationHelping behavior and racial discrimination among liberals and conservatives.
Gaertner, S. L. (1973) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0034221 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Self-citationReducing Prejudice and Discrimination
Turner, R. N. (2020) · Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Psychology · doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.313 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., & Gaertner, S. L. (2000) · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Effects of Race, Status, and Ability on Helping Behavior
Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (1981) · Social Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.2307/3033833 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Self-citationJustice is Still Not Colorblind: Differential Racial Effects of Exposure to Inadmissible Evidence
Johnson, J. D., Whitestone, E., Jackson, L. A., & Gatto, L. (1995) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167295219003 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Frey, D. L., & Gaertner, S. L. (1986) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.50.6.1083 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Self-citationAchieving stepfamily harmony: An intergroup-relations approach.
Banker, B. S., & Gaertner, S. L. (1998) · Journal of Family Psychology · doi:10.1037/0893-3200.12.3.310 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Self-citationAversive racism in Britain: the use of inadmissible evidence in legal decisions
Hodson, G., Hooper, H. H., Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (2005) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.261 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Self-citationLawler, E. J., & Thye, S. R. (2015) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s0882-6145201532 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Hierarchical group relations, institutional terror, and the dynamics of the criminal justice system.
Sidanius, J., Levin, S., & Felicia Pratto, B. (1998) · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 7
- Allport G. W., 1954, The nature of prejudice
- Bachman B. A.(1993).An intergroup model of organizational mergers.Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation Department of Psychology University of Delaware Newark DE .
- Banker B. S.(2002).Intergroup conflict and bias reduction in stepfamilies: A longitudinal examination of intergroup relations processes.Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation Department of Psychology University of Delaware Newark DE .
- Blank R. M., 2001, Racial trends and their consequences, 21
- Dovidio J. F., 1998, Multiple attitudes and contemporary racial bias
- Gaertner S. L., 1997, Off white, 167
- Sidanius J., 1998, Confronting racism: The problem and the response, 136
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Eisenberg, N., Eggum, N. D., & Giunta, L. D. (2010) · Social Issues and Policy Review · doi:10.1111/j.1751-2409.2010.01020.x · Cited by 714 · see citing works
Page‐Gould, E., Mendoza‐Denton, R., & Tropp, L. R. (2008) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.95.5.1080 · Cited by 582 · see citing works
“…prejudice has been found to predict subtle manifestations of anxiety and hostility in crossgroup interactions (Dovidio, Kawakami, & Gaertner, 2002; Gaertner & Dovidio, 2005), whereas egalitarianism has been linked with more adaptive stress responses during interracial interactions (Mendes, Gray,…”
BackgroundThe Impact of Racial Microaggressions on Mental Health: Counseling Implications for Clients of Color
Nadal, K. L. Y., Griffin, K. E., Wong, Y., Hamit, S. A., & Rasmus, M. (2014) · Journal of Counseling & Development · doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.2014.00130.x · Cited by 535 · see citing works
The Racial and Ethnic Microaggressions Scale (REMS): Construction, reliability, and validity.
Nadal, K. L. Y. (2011) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0025193 · Cited by 520 · see citing works
Sexual Stigma and Sexual Prejudice in the United States: A Conceptual Framework
Herek, G. M. (2008) · Nebraska Symposium on Motivation/The Nebraska symposium on motivation · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-09556-1_4 · Cited by 517 · see citing works
“Like most contemporary discussions in this area, the present chapter draws from Goffman’s (1963) seminal account for a basic definition of stigma.”
BackgroundInfluentialSuperordinate identities and intergroup conflict: The ingroup projection model
Wenzel, M., Mummendey, A., & Waldzus, S. (2007) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463280701728302 · Cited by 459 · see citing works
Thomas, E. F., McGarty, C., & Mavor, K. I. (2009) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868309341563 · Cited by 373 · see citing works
“…in the context of research on contact theory (Allport, 1954) and has generally explored the power of cognitive recategorization (for a review, see Gaertner & Dovidio, 2005; Gaertner, Dovidio, Anastasio, Bachman, & Rust, 1993) or decategorization (Brewer & Miller, 1988) to bring about greater…”
BackgroundChanging, priming, and acting on values: Effects via motivational relations in a circular model.
Maio, G. R., Pakizeh, A., Cheung, W., & Rees, K. J. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0016420 · Cited by 344 · see citing works
Collective action as the material expression of opinion-based group membership.
McGarty, C., Bliuc, A., Thomas, E. F., & Bongiorno, R. (2009) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.2009.01627.x · Cited by 333 · see citing works
“(p. 53) The first of the alternatives raised by Reicher et al. has received considerable attention through work on common in-group identity (e.g., Dovidio et al., 1997; Gaertner & Dovidio, 2000, 2005).”
BackgroundMicroaggressions: Clarification, Evidence, and Impact
Williams, M. T. (2019) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691619827499 · Cited by 329 · see citing works
Calabrese, S. K., Earnshaw, V. A., Underhill, K., Hansen, N. B., & Dovidio, J. F. (2013) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-013-0675-x · Cited by 252 · see citing works
“Previous research has shown that people are particularly likely to exhibit racial discrimination in contexts in which behavioral norms or situational demands are ambiguous [28, 29], particularly when people can justify their actions based on factors ostensibly unrelated to race [30].”
BackgroundSelf-citationSchulenkorf, N. (2011) · Sport Management Review · doi:10.1016/j.smr.2011.06.001 · Cited by 251 · see citing works
Multicultural experiences reduce intergroup bias through epistemic unfreezing.
Tadmor, C. T., Hong, Y.-Y., Chao, M. M., Wiruchnipawan, F., & Wang, W. (2012) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0029719 · Cited by 204 · see citing works
“Past research suggests that discrimination is most likely to occur in ambiguous situations (e.g., Gaertner & Dovidio, 2005; Uhlmann & Cohen, 2007).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Egoism and Altruism of Intergenerational Behavior
Wade‐Benzoni, K. A., & Tost, L. P. (2009) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868309339317 · Cited by 204 · see citing works
“…ingroup rather than as members of separate groups, members' attitudes toward former outgroup members will become more positive as a result of the motivational and cognitive forces that emerge from ingroup formation (see Gaertner & Dovidio, 2005, and Dovidio, Gaertner, & Saguy, 2009, for reviews).”
BackgroundImplicit and Explicit Racial Attitudes Changed During Black Lives Matter
Sawyer, J., & Gampa, A. (2018) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167218757454 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
“Furthermore, through participation in or identification with BLM there is the possibility of creating a common ingroup identity (e.g., as antiracists) that includes both Blacks and Whites, which evidence suggests can reduce racial bias (Gaertner & Dovidio, 2005).”
BackgroundMitchell, R. J., Parker, V., & Giles, M. (2011) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/0018726711416872 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
“By extending intergroup boundaries so that previous ‘outgroups’ become part of a larger ‘ingroup’ status, team-based identities overcome the negative consequences that are predicted by stereotyping and similarity-attraction theories (Gaertner and Dovidio, 2005; Gaertner et al., 1989).”
BackgroundProducing Colorblindness: Everyday Mechanisms of White Ignorance
Mueller, J. C. (2017) · Social Problems · doi:10.1093/socpro/spw061 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Mendoza‐Denton, R., & Page‐Gould, E. (2008) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02179.x · Cited by 169 · see citing works
“…other dimensions of difference, provides benefits such as reduced intergroup bias (Gaertner, Dovidio, Nier, Ward, & Banker, 1999) and greater institutional belonging and commitment among minority-group members (Dovidio, Gaertner, Flores Niemann, & Snider, 2001; see Gaertner & Dovidio, 2005).”
BackgroundLynch, M. (2019) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2019.1686163 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
“…of prejudiced or discriminatory behavior when their behavior can be justified on nonracial grounds (Dovidio, 2001), and less likely to do so in situations where race is made salient, or where there are no race-neutral reasons available to explain disparate treatment (Gaertner & Dovidio, 2005).”
BackgroundErskine, S. E., & Bilimoria, D. (2019) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/1548051819848993 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Developing the Research Basis for Controlling Bias in Hiring
Bendick, M., & Nunes, A. P. (2012) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.2012.01747.x · Cited by 151 · see citing works
“In particular, it questions the effectiveness of seeking to change employer behavior without explicitly addressing the often-unconscious attitudes and perceptions underlying that behavior (Gaertner & Dovidio, 2005).”
BackgroundMastro, D. E., Behm‐Morawitz, E., & Kopacz, M. A. (2008) · Human Communication Research · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2007.00311.x · Cited by 141 · see citing works
“White) defendant. In so doing, Gaertner and Dovidio (2005) argue that White respondents are able to provide an ostensibly unbiased rationalization for the decision while still adhering to stereotypes in their judgment, either consciously or unconsciously.”
BackgroundInfluentialIn Pursuit of Antiracist Social Justice: Denaturalizing Whiteness in the Academic Library
Brook, F., Ellenwood, D., & Lazzaro, A. E. (2015) · Library Trends · doi:10.1353/lib.2015.0048 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
“Yet in less clear situations, when candidates were moderately qualified, the White study participants recommended Black candidates significantly less often than they did White candidates (Gaertner & Dovidio, 2005).”
BackgroundModern Discrimination in Organizations
Hebl, M. R., Cheng, S. K., & Ng, L. C. (2019) · Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012119-044948 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Confronting prejudice: The who , what , and why of confrontation effectiveness
Gulker, J. E., Mark, A. Y., & Monteith, M. J. (2012) · Social Influence · doi:10.1080/15534510.2012.736879 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
“Also, confrontation may be more effective to the extent that a target confronter emphasizes a larger superordinate group that includes targets and non-targets (e.g., Americans, college students) (see Gaertner & Dovidio, 2005).”
BackgroundThe Psychological and Academic Costs of School-Based Racial and Ethnic Microaggressions
Keels, M., Durkee, M. I., & Hope, E. C. (2017) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/0002831217722120 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
“The uncommonness of overt racism is more than political correctness as most people self-report that they are not racist and declare egalitarian values (Gaertner & Dovidio, 2005).”
BackgroundIntergroup Contact and Beliefs about Homosexuality in Adolescence
Heinze, J. E., & Horn, S. S. (2009) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-009-9408-x · Cited by 127 · see citing works
“That is, similar to aversive or coversive racism (Dovidio and Gaertner 2004; Gaertner and Dovidio 2005 ) in which individuals claim tolerant and non-prejudicial attitudes in the abstract, but then act in prejudicial ways when confronted with a situation in which they have to interact with someone from a different race…”
BackgroundIrrational exuberance: Neoliberal subjectivity and the perversion of truth
Layton, L. (2010) · Subjectivity · doi:10.1057/sub.2010.14 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Williams, M. T., Malcoun, E., Sawyer, B. A., Davis, D., Nouri, L. B., & Bruce, S. L. (2014) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs4020102 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
“Mental health professionals may not be aware of the effects of racism on psychopathology because of a societal tendency to deny or rationalize the presence of racism [6,23].”
BackgroundThe Hidden Prejudice in Selection: A Research Investigation on Skin Color Bias
Harrison, M. S., & Thomas, K. M. (2009) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2008.00433.x · Cited by 120 · see citing works
“However, given U.S. history, it would be naïve to think that it is never a factor, as previous research has shown (Dovidio & Gaertner, 2004; Dovidio, Gaertner, & Pearson, 2005; Gaertner & Dovidio, 2005).”
The Facade of Fit in Faculty Search Processes
White-Lewis, D. K. (2020) · The Journal of Higher Education · doi:10.1080/00221546.2020.1775058 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Kunst, J. R., Thomsen, L., Sam, D. L., & Berry, J. W. (2015) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167215599349 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Tracy, S. J., & Rivera, K. D. (2009) · Management Communication Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0893318909352248 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
“Although many people think racism is a thing of the past, aversive racism continues to operate within organizations without explicit or deliberate references to overt racism (Gaertner & Dovido, 2005; Saucier, Miller, & Doucet, 2005).”
BackgroundLevin, M. E., Luoma, J. B., Vilardaga, R., Lillis, J., Nobles, R., & Hayes, S. C. (2015) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.12355 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
“This may be particularly relevant to contemporary forms of prejudice, such as aversive racism, in which individuals are conflicted between explicitly stated egalitarian values and implicit biases against marginalized groups (Gaertner & Dovidio, 2005).”
Development and Validation of the Workplace Age Discrimination Scale
Marchiondo, L. A., Gonzales, E. G., & Ran, S. (2015) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-015-9425-6 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
“conscious perpetrator attitudes, allowing stereotypes to manifest in discriminatory behavior without perpetrators’ awareness (Dovidio et al. 1997; Gaertner and Dovidio 2005).”
BackgroundGamberini, L., Chittaro, L., Spagnolli, A., & Carlesso, C. (2015) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.01.040 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Johnston‐Goodstar, K., & Roholt, R. V. (2017) · Journal of Ethnic & Cultural Diversity in Social Work · doi:10.1080/15313204.2016.1263818 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
“Agreeing that professionals reinforce and support aversive racism (Gaertner & Dovidio, 2005), which by definition is often done unconsciously and unintentionally, is a necessary first step, but this cannot bewhere practice ends.”
BackgroundThe double‐edged sword of diversity: Toward a dual pathway model
Carter, A. B., & Phillips, K. W. (2017) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12313 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Stereotypes and prejudice create workplace discrimination
Fiske, S. T., & Lee, T. L. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511753725.004 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Dixon, S. (2009) · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Donald Trump’s “Political Incorrectness”: Neoliberalism as Frontstage Racism on Social Media
Gantt-Shafer, J. (2017) · Social Media + Society · doi:10.1177/2056305117733226 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
“Rather than espousing outright and outspoken bigotry, Gaertner and Dovidio (2005) describe how whites often act as aversive racists—or progressive people who “endorse fair and just treatment of all groups” but also “unconsciously harbor feelings of uneasiness toward blacks, and thus try to avoid…”
‘It’s okay to be racist’: moral disengagement in online discussions of racist incidents in Australia
Faulkner, N., & Bliuc, A. (2016) · Ethnic and Racial Studies · doi:10.1080/01419870.2016.1171370 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
“Blatant forms of racism (Kovel 1970) have become increasing sanctioned, and sometimes denied, by society (Dovidio and Gaertner 1998; Dunn and Nelson 2011; Gaertner and Dovidio 2005).”
BackgroundAdverse racial climates in academia: Conceptualization, interventions, and call to action
Williams, M. T. (2019) · New Ideas in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2019.05.002 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Racing to help: Racial bias in high emergency helping situations.
Kunstman, J. W., & Plant, E. A. (2008) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0012822 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
“Collectively, these findings experimentally demonstrate and clarify the emergency racial bias found by Saucier et al. (2005) in their meta-analysis.”
BackgroundCommon human identity and the path to global climate justice
Reese, G. (2015) · Climatic Change · doi:10.1007/s10584-015-1548-2 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“Various interventions with different sub- and superordinate groups provided experimental evidence for this assumption (e.g., Houlette et al. 2004; Levine et al. 2005; Riek et al. 2010; see also Gaertner and Dovidio 2005).”
BackgroundExamining the consequences of exposure to racism for the executive functioning of Black students
Bair, A. N., & Steele, J. R. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.08.016 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Addressing the impact of racism on veterans of color: A race-based stress and trauma intervention.
Carlson, M., Endlsey, M., Motley, D., Shawahin, L. N., & Williams, M. T. (2018) · Psychology of Violence · doi:10.1037/vio0000221 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Mapping the Racial Bias of the White Male Capital Juror: Jury Composition and the “Empathic Divide”
Lynch, M., & Haney, C. W. (2011) · Law & Society Review · doi:10.1111/j.1540-5893.2011.00428.x · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Understanding the under-representation of African American coaches: A multilevel perspective
Cunningham, G. B. (2010) · Sport Management Review · doi:10.1016/j.smr.2009.07.006 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“In its place is a more subtle form of racism coined aversive racism (Gaertner & Dovidio, 2000, 2005).”
BackgroundInfluentialSocial identification with animals: Unpacking our psychological connection with other animals.
Amiot, C. E., Sukhanova, K., & Bastian, B. B. (2019) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspi0000199 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Identifying and Treating Race-Based Trauma in Counseling.
Hemmings, C., & Evans, A. (2018) · Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development · doi:10.1002/jmcd.12090 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Puddifoot, K. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192845559.001.0001 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
A critical examination of “being Black” in the juvenile justice system.
Peck, J. H., & Jennings, W. G. (2016) · Law and Human Behavior · doi:10.1037/lhb0000180 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Intersection of Racism and PTSD: Assessment and Treatment of Racial Stress and Trauma
Williams, M. T., Osman, M., Gran-Ruaz, S., & Lopez, J. (2021) · Current Treatment Options in Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s40501-021-00250-2 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Aversive racism and community-instigated policing: The spatial politics of Nextdoor
Bloch, S. (2021) · Environment and Planning C Politics and Space · doi:10.1177/23996544211019754 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Lian, Z., & Wallace, B. C. (2020) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2018.1538147 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“However, contemporary racial/ethnic discrimination that was expressed in subtle, indirect, and usually unintentional forms continues to influence the daily experiences of racial/ethnic minority significantly.(42) Since it is difficult to identify these invisible discriminations, subtle discriminations are not as corre…”
BackgroundNo good without God: Antiatheist prejudice as a function of threats to morals and values.
Cook, C. L., Cottrell, C. A., & Webster, G. D. (2014) · Psychology of Religion and Spirituality · doi:10.1037/rel0000013 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Implicit racial bias and prosocial behavior
Štěpáníková, I., Triplett, J., & Simpson, B. (2011) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2011.02.004 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“Why do racial inequalities stubbornly persist despite the fact that Americans’ racial attitudes have become increasingly egalitarian (Campbell, 1971; Dovidio and Gaertner, 1986; Karlins et al., 1969; Gaertner and Dovidio, 2005; Pager and Shepherd, 2008)?”
BackgroundHylton, K. (2015) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315715476 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Hannah, S. D., & Carpenter-Song, E. A. (2013) · Culture Medicine and Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s11013-013-9320-4 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Race as an adaptive challenge: Working with diversity in the clinical consulting room.
Leary, K. R. (2012) · Psychoanalytic Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0027817 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Movement Synchrony Influences Intergroup Relations in a Minimal Groups Paradigm
Good, A., Choma, B. L., & Russo, F. (2017) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/01973533.2017.1337015 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“The induction of a superordinate identity is proposed to create a cognitive shift that ameliorates attitudes and behaviors toward individuals who would have formerly been considered as members of the outgroup (see Gaertner & Dovidio, 2005, for review).”
BackgroundGay and lesbian customers’ perceived discrimination and identity management
Ro, H., & Olson, E. D. (2019) · International Journal of Hospitality Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2019.102319 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“Researchers note that automatic and unaware behaviors during service encounters involve some degree of bias (Gaertner and Dovidio, 2005) and there is also a rather quick assumption that another person is heterosexual unless the person discloses otherwise (Sardy, 2001).”
BackgroundReducing White Juror Bias: The Role of Race Salience and Racial Attitudes<sup>1</sup>
Cohn, E. S., Bucolo, D., Pride, M., & Sommers, S. R. (2009) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2009.00511.x · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Mendoza‐Denton, R., Pietrzak, J., & Downey, G. (2008) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.95.2.338 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Feygina, I. (2013) · Social Justice Research · doi:10.1007/s11211-013-0189-8 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Being an anti-racist clinician
Williams, M. T., Faber, S. C., & Duniya, C. (2022) · The Cognitive Behaviour Therapist · doi:10.1017/s1754470x22000162 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“Aversive racism is typically enacted by people who consider themselves egalitarian and even progressive (Gaertner and Dovidio, 2005).”
BackgroundDejaeghere, Y., Hooghe, M., & Claes, E. (2011) · International Journal of Intercultural Relations · doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.02.010 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Subtle and Severe: Microaggressions Among Racially Diverse Sexual Minorities
Weber, A., Rawle, S.-A. C., Robinson, T. L., Zeko-Underwood, E., & Poindexter, B. (2017) · Journal of Homosexuality · doi:10.1080/00918369.2017.1324679 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“According to Gaertner and Dovidio (2005), racism can originate from being unaware of racism’s impact.”
BackgroundInfluentialDiversity in the Post Affirmative Action Labor Market: A Proxy for Racial Progress?
Collins, S. M. (2011) · Critical Sociology · doi:10.1177/0896920510380075 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“…and employment structure of companies is persistently asserted in research (Collins, 1993, 1997a; Elliott and Smith, 2001; Frazer and Wiersma, 2001; Gaertner and Dovidio, 2005; Reskin, 1998; Wilson et al., 1999), and embodied in the sexual harassment and race and sex employment discrimination…”
BackgroundCultivating positive feelings and attitudes: A path to prejudice reduction and ally behavior.
Gonzalez, K. A., Riggle, E. D. B., & Rostosky, S. S. (2015) · Translational Issues in Psychological Science · doi:10.1037/tps0000049 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Creating More Effective Multiethnic Schools
Zirkel, S. (2008) · Social Issues and Policy Review · doi:10.1111/j.1751-2409.2008.00015.x · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“Exposure to these negative stereotypes and prejudiced behavior is emotionally exhausting (Dovidio, 2001; Dovidio, Kawakami, & Gaertner, 2002; Gaertner & Dovidio, 2005; Shelton & Richeson, 2006), cognitively taxing, (Richeson, Trawalter, & Shelton, 2005; Salvatore & Shelton, 2007), and has the…”
BackgroundInfluentialFeinstein, B. A., Dyar, C., Bhatia, V., Latack, J. A., & Davila, J. (2015) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-015-0642-x · Cited by 42 · see citing works
The legitimizing role of accent on discrimination against immigrants
de Souza, L. E. C., Pereira, C. R., Camino, L., de Lima, T. J. S., & Torres, A. R. R. (2016) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2216 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Aversive Racism and Intergroup Contact Theories: Cultural Competence in a Segregated World
Rodenborg, N. A., & Boisen, L. A. (2013) · Journal of Social Work Education · doi:10.1080/10437797.2013.812463 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“However, the covert act described above would be acceptable (Gaertner & Dovidio, 2005).”
BackgroundInfluentialIntroducing the Invisible Man: Black Male Professionals in Higher Education
Turner, C. M., & Grauerholz, L. (2017) · Humboldt Journal of Social Relations · doi:10.55671/0160-4341.1013 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Conflating Apples and Oranges: Understanding Modern Forms of Racism
Byrd, W. C. (2011) · Sociology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9020.2011.00420.x · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Espinoza, R. K. E., & Esqueda, C. W. (2008) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0012767 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
The Intersection of Crime Seriousness, Discretion, and Race: A Test of the Liberation Hypothesis
Hauser, W. J., & Peck, J. H. (2016) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2015.1121284 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“…individuals who identified as having both high and low prejudicial beliefs of Blacks encompass stereotypes that can support prejudicial responses to the disadvantage of Blacks (for more experiments, see also Cohn, Bucolo, Pride, & Sommers, 2009; Gaertner & Dovidio, 2005; Sommers & Ellsworth, 2000).”
BackgroundAfrican American Health and Posttraumatic Slave Syndrome: A Terror Management Theory Account
Halloran, M. J. (2018) · Journal of Black Studies · doi:10.1177/0021934718803737 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Suyemoto, K. L., Curley, M., & Mukkamala, S. (2020) · Genealogy · doi:10.3390/genealogy4030081 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“…to interact with members of different racial groups, consequentially determining a racial uniformity within a group of friends (Tawa and Kim 2011); this may impede the creation of a common ingroup identity that could contribute to more positive interracial attitudes (Gaertner and Dovidio 2005).”
BackgroundLima‐Nunes, A., Pereira, C. R., & Correia, I. F. (2013) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.1981 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“That is, normative constraints can drive both prejudiced and non-prejudiced individuals to legitimise their discriminatory behaviour, and they do so by using a seemingly unprejudiced justification (e.g., Costa-Lopes, Dovidio, Pereira, & Jost, 2013; Gaertner & Dovidio, 2005; Jost & Banaji, 2001).”
Umaña‐Taylor, A. J., Kornienko, O., McDermott, E. R., & Motti‐Stefanidi, F. (2019) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-019-01181-1 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
An Ex Ante Framework for the Strategic Study of Social Utility of Sport Events
Schulenkorf, N. (2009) · Tourism and Hospitality Research · doi:10.1057/thr.2009.2 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“Others have argued that a common in-group identity or a dual identity status can be achieved through integrative joint activities and the subsequent emotional integration of communities ( Gaertner et al , 1989, 2000 ; Gonz á lez and Brown, 2003 ; Gaertner and Dovidio, 2005 ).”
BackgroundKunst, J. R., Thomsen, L., & Sam, D. L. (2014) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2014 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“A series of experiments (e.g., Gaertner & Dovidio, 2000; Gaertner, Dovidio, & Bachman, 1996; Gaertner et al., 1993) and correlational research (see Gaertner & Dovidio, 2000, 2005) support this common in-group identity model (CIIM; Gaertner & Dovidio, 2000) to great extent.”
BackgroundMekawi, Y., Todd, N. R., Yi, J., & Blevins, E. J. (2020) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/cou0000427 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Odenweller, K. G., & Harris, T. M. (2018) · Communication Quarterly · doi:10.1080/01463373.2018.1452766 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“One reason for this lack of restraint is that White individuals are not consciously aware of their implicit biases and thus do not realize that they are communicating aversive racism (e.g., colorblind ideology, reverse racism; Gaertner & Dovidio, 2005; Richeson & Nussbaum, 2004).”
BackgroundElias, A. (2023) · Ethnic and Racial Studies · doi:10.1080/01419870.2023.2181668 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Promoting racial diversity at work: Challenges and solutions
Bielby, W. T. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511753725.005 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Whiteness as Pathological Narcissism
Miller, A. E., & Josephs, L. (2009) · Contemporary Psychoanalysis · doi:10.1080/00107530.2009.10745989 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“Research on aversive racism has documented that liberal whites who do not identify with prejudiced sentiments nonetheless may discriminate in subtle ways and may not be aware of doing so (Kovel, 1970; Devine, 1989; Dovidio and Gaertner, 2005).”
BackgroundEngaging Asian American youth and their families in quality mental health services
Li, H., & Seidman, L. J. (2010) · Asian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2010.08.008 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Playing the race card: Making race salient in defense opening and closing statements
Bucolo, D., & Cohn, E. S. (2010) · University of New Hampshire Scholars Repository (University of New Hampshire at Manchester) · doi:10.1348/135532508x400824
Adolescent Girls’ Experiences of Discrimination
Ayres, M. M., & Leaper, C. (2012) · Journal of Adolescent Research · doi:10.1177/0743558412457817 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“Research on racism (see Gaertner & Dovidio, 2005, for a review) and sexism (see Leaper & Robnett, 2011, for a review) suggests that discrimination may be subtle and/or ambiguous, yet still have an important impact.”
BackgroundDiversity Branding Strategy: Concealing Implicit Stereotypes and Biased Behaviors
Byrd, M. Y. (2018) · Advances in Developing Human Resources · doi:10.1177/1523422318778006 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Implicit stereotypes are negative feelings that are manifested in subtle, indirect, or rationalizable ways and could reflect aversive racist behavior (Gaertner & Dovidio, 2005).”
BackgroundWilliams, M. T., Davis, D. M., Thibodeau, M., & Bach, N. (2013) · Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jocrd.2013.07.003 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Another contributing factor could be increased concerns about checking, as African Americans may have greater concerns about being criticized or judged unfairly for minor errors (Gaertner & Dovidio, 2005; Williams et al., 2005).”
BackgroundRacism and censorship in the editorial and peer review process
Strauss, D., Gran-Ruaz, S., Osman, M., Williams, M. T., & Faber, S. C. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1120938 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“However, certain contexts are more likely to precipitate racist behaviour unaligned with these views (Gaertner and Dovidio, 2005).”
BackgroundRecruitment of Ethnoracial Minorities for Mental Health Research
Williams, M. T., Tellawi, G., Wetterneck, C. T., & Chapman, L. K. (2013) · Behavior Therapy · Cited by 31 · see citing works
The Impact of Ethnicity, Immigration Status, and Socioeconomic Status on Juror Decision Making
Espinoza, R. K. E., Esqueda, C. W., Toscano, S., et al. (2014) · Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice · doi:10.1080/15377938.2014.984044 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“…status (SES), in accordance with aversive racism and modern forms 1 of bias against people of color in le- gal contexts (Brown, Akiyama, White, Jayaratne, & Anderson, 2009; Dovidio, 2001; Dovidio & Gaertner, 2000, 2007; Dovidio, Gaertner, Penner, Pearson, & Norton, 2009; Gaertner & Dovidio, 2005).”
Black, Blue, and Blow: The Effect of Race and Criminal History on Perceptions of Police Violence
Smith, J. P., & Merolla, D. (2019) · Sociological inquiry · doi:10.1111/soin.12275 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Does European Citizenship Increase Tolerance in Young People?
Quintelier, E., & Dejaeghere, Y. (2008) · European Union Politics · doi:10.1177/1465116508093488 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
- Authors
- Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F.
- Affiliations
- University of Delaware (US)
- University of Connecticut (US)
- Corresponding author
- Gaertner, Samuel L.
- ORCID
- Dovidio, John F.
- Venue
- Journal of Social Issues
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2005-08-11
- Volume
- 61
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 615-639
- ISSN
- 0022-4537 (ISSN-L)
- 1540-4560
- OpenAlex
- W2171244177
- Semantic Scholar
- fcc70ecd4a693fb2f6f990f6a3c8327ada0dcc9b
- Cited by
- 424
- References
- 60
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 36 · 2021: 34 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 35 · 2018: 30 · 2017: 23 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 25 · 2014: 25 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 22
- FWCI
- 34.01
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Social Issues (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Keywords
- aversive racism, common ingroup identity model, social categorization, social identity, ingroup identity, prejudice reduction, social justice
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
