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The dark side of light at night: physiological, epidemiological, and ecological consequences
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Abstract: Organisms must adapt to the temporal characteristics of their surroundings to successfully survive and reproduce. Variation in the daily light cycle, for example, acts through endocrine and neurobiological mechanisms to control several downstream physiological and behavioral processes. Interruptions in normal circadian light cycles and the resulting disruption of normal melatonin rhythms cause widespread disruptive effects involving multiple body systems, the results of which can have serious medical consequences for individuals, as well as large‐scale ecological implications for populations. With the invention of electrical lights about a century ago, the temporal organization of the environment has been drastically altered for many species, including humans. In addition to the incidental exposure to light at night through light pollution, humans also engage in increasing amounts of shift‐work, resulting in repeated and often long‐term circadian disruption. The increasing prevalence of exposure to light at night has significant social, ecological, behavioral, and health consequences that are only now becoming apparent. This review addresses the complicated web of potential behavioral and physiological consequences resulting from exposure to light at night, as well as the large‐scale medical and ecological implications that may result.
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Redefining efficiency for outdoor lighting
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BackgroundResultInfluentialLight pollution is associated with earlier tree budburst across the United Kingdom
ffrench‐Constant, R. H., Somers-Yeates, R., Bennie, J., Economou, T., Hodgson, D. J., Spalding, A., & McGregor, P. K. (2016) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2016.0813 · Cited by 151
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BackgroundRole of melatonin in metabolic regulation
Korkmaz, A., Topal, T., Tan, D., & Reiter, R. J. (2009) · Reviews in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders · doi:10.1007/s11154-009-9117-5 · Cited by 145
“Disturbance of the circadian organization of physiology, endocrinology and metabolism, called chronodisruption [19], links light and particularly LAN, biological rhythms and the development of cancers with melatonin being a crucial and central biological intermediary [18].”
BackgroundThe ecological impact of city lighting scenarios: exploring gap crossing thresholds for urban bats
Hale, J., Fairbrass, A. J., Matthews, T. J., Davies, G., & Sadler, J. P. (2015) · Global Change Biology · doi:10.1111/gcb.12884 · Cited by 144
“Keywords: connectivity, gap crossing, lighting, movement, Pipistrellus pipistrellus, scenarios, urban, urbanization Received 26 June 2014; revised version received 15 January 2015 and accepted 16 January 2015”
BackgroundBiomarkers of oxidative status: missing tools in conservation physiology
Beaulieu, M., & Costantini, D. (2014) · Conservation Physiology · doi:10.1093/conphys/cou014 · Cited by 151
“Given that artificial light disrupts the organizational structure of the environment, it is likely to alter the oxidative status of animals that inhabit urban areas (Navara and Nelson, 2007).”
BackgroundBrains in the city: Neurobiological effects of urbanization
Lambert, K. G., Nelson, R. J., Jovanovic, T., & Cerdá, M. (2015) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.04.007 · Cited by 142
Self-citationDisruption of Circadian Rhythms: A Crucial Factor in the Etiology of Depression
Salgado‐Delgado, R., Osorio, A. T., Saderi, N., & Escobar, C. (2011) · Depression Research and Treatment · doi:10.1155/2011/839743 · Cited by 148
“500 lux, during the night cause in short term an important impairment of temperature and hormonal rhythms [27].”
BackgroundEnvironmental pollution and mental health: a narrative review of literature
Ventriglio, A., Bellomo, A., di Gioia, I., Sabatino, D. D., Favale, D., Berardis, D. D., & Cianconi, P. (2020) · CNS Spectrums · doi:10.1017/s1092852920001303 · Cited by 150
“The invention of electric light has led to “roundthe-clock” societies: all persons living in the United States and Europe are exposed to unnatural light and about 20% of the population has a shift work.(104) These changes obviously have biological implications.”
BackgroundBenefits and costs of artificial nighttime lighting of the environment
Gaston, K. J., Gaston, S., Bennie, J., & Hopkins, J. (2014) · Environmental Reviews · doi:10.1139/er-2014-0041 · Cited by 151
“Although widely discussed, the negative impacts of the introduction of artificial nighttime lighting on human health remain to be fully understood (but see Navara and Nelson 2007; Erren and Reiter 2009; Boyce 2010; Fonken and Nelson 2011).”
BackgroundCircadian Rhythms of the Hypothalamus: From Function to Physiology
Drunen, R. V., & Eckel‐Mahan, K. L. (2021) · Clocks & Sleep · doi:10.3390/clockssleep3010012 · Cited by 146
“and mistimed food intake are additional examples of potent zeitgebers (or “time-givers”) that alter the internal biological clock and its synchrony across tissues [23,24].”
BackgroundSchroeder, A., Truong, D. A., Loh, D. H., Jordan, M. C., Roos, K. P., & Colwell, C. S. (2012) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2012.233676 · Cited by 140
“Co-ordinated timing of behaviour and physiology, as well as their alignment to the light–dark cycle, is important because misalignments are correlated with the development of disease (Navara & Nelson, 2007; Stevens, 2009; Thorpy, 2011; Kivimäki et al. 2011).”
BackgroundSleepless in Town – Drivers of the Temporal Shift in Dawn Song in Urban European Blackbirds
Nordt, A., & Klenke, R. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0071476 · Cited by 134
“Today, many nature reserves are exposed to sky glow from nearby urban areas, which further threatens endangered species [28].”
BackgroundThe influence of biological rhythms on host–parasite interactions
Martinez, M. E., & Helm, B. (2015) · Trends in Ecology & Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.tree.2015.03.012 · Cited by 139
Left Habenula Mediates Light-Preference Behavior in Zebrafish via an Asymmetrical Visual Pathway
Zhang, B.-B., Yao, Y.-Y., Zhang, H.-F., Kawakami, K., & Du, J.-L. (2017) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2017.01.011 · Cited by 115
Tan, D. X., Manchester, L. C., Terrón, M. P., Flores, L. J., Tamura, H., & Reiter, R. J. (2007) · Journal of Pineal Research · doi:10.1111/j.1600-079x.2007.00513.x · Cited by 132
“These include its free radical scavenging and antioxidant capacity, immuneenhancement, reproductive regulation in seasonal breeders, tumor suppression, anti-inflammation and strengthening of circadian rhythms [3, 4].”
BackgroundRuss, A., Rüger, A., & Klenke, R. (2014) · Journal für Ornithologie · doi:10.1007/s10336-014-1105-1 · Cited by 132
“This loss of the night has serious consequences for almost all groups of animals, including humans (Navara and Nelson 2007).”
BackgroundMapping Lightscapes: Spatial Patterning of Artificial Lighting in an Urban Landscape
Hale, J., Davies, G., Fairbrass, A. J., Matthews, T. J., Rogers, C. D. F., & Sadler, J. P. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0061460 · Cited by 129
“Although beneficial for many social applications; strong, broad spectrum and extensive lighting at night can interrupt key physiological and behavioural processes for species of plants and animals, including humans [25,54].”
BackgroundFonken, L. K., Lieberman, R. A., Weil, Z. M., & Nelson, R. J. (2013) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/en.2013-1121 · Cited by 125
“The worldwide increase in obesity correlates with increased exposure to artificial light at night (LAN) during the 20th century (3).”
BackgroundSelf-citationLight Pollution as a New Risk Factor for Human Breast and Prostate Cancers
Haim, A., & Portnov, B. A. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-6220-6 · Cited by 133
Demographic effects of artificial nighttime lighting on animal populations
Gaston, K. J., & Bennie, J. (2014) · Environmental Reviews · doi:10.1139/er-2014-0005 · Cited by 124
Physical behaviour of anthropogenic light propagation into the nocturnal environment
Aubé, M. (2015) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2014.0117 · Cited by 122
“At the same time, this will increase the attenuation of light over long distances for observers located away from sources; (2) The spectral reflectance properties of the ground; (3) The presence of masking by terrain and obstacles (mountains, trees, buildings); (4) The characteristics of lighting devices (spectral pow…”
BackgroundBrüning, A., Hölker, F., Franke, S., Kleiner, W., & Kloas, W. (2015) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.11.023 · Cited by 128
Artificial light alters natural regimes of night-time sky brightness
Davies, T. W., Bennie, J., Inger, R., & Gaston, K. J. (2013) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep01722 · Cited by 122
Dim light at night disturbs the daily sleep-wake cycle in the rat
Stenvers, D. J., van Dorp, R., Foppen, E., Mendoza, J., Opperhuizen, A., Fliers, E., Bisschop, P. H. L. T., Meijer, J. H., Kalsbeek, A., & Deboer, T. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep35662 · Cited by 123
Understanding light pollution: Recent advances on its health threats and regulations
Cao, M., Xu, T., & Yin, D. (2022) · Journal of Environmental Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jes.2022.06.020 · Cited by 131
Do artificially illuminated skies affect biodiversity in nocturnal landscapes?
Kyba, C. C. M., & Hölker, F. (2013) · Landscape Ecology · doi:10.1007/s10980-013-9936-3 · Cited by 119
“Navara and Nelson (2007) provide an excellent review of the effects of”
BackgroundRed is the new black: how the colour of urban skyglow varies with cloud cover
Kyba, C. C. M., Ruhtz, T., Fischer, J., & Hölker, F. (2012) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21559.x · Cited by 119
“…(Gallaway, Olsen & Mitchell 2010), obsolescence of astronomical research facilities (Riegel 1973), cultural impacts (Gallaway 2010), and potential ecosystem (Rich & Longcore 2006) and human health effects (Navara & Nelson 2007)] are not immediately apparent, and are often difficult to quantify.”
BackgroundExposure to light at night and risk of depression in the elderly.
Obayashi, K., Saeki, K., Iwamoto, J., Ikada, Y., & Kurumatani, N. (2013) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2013.06.018 · Cited by 117
“In contrast, increased LAN exposure is observed because of artificial lighting, not only in night-shift workers but also in individuals with normal circadian lifestyles (Navara and Nelson, 2007).”
BackgroundCircadian Clock Regulation on Lipid Metabolism and Metabolic Diseases
Pan, X., Mota, S., & Zhang, B. (2020) · Advances in experimental medicine and biology · doi:10.1007/978-981-15-6082-8_5 · Cited by 115
Chronic dim light at night provokes reversible depression-like phenotype: possible role for TNF
Bedrosian, T. A., Weil, Z. M., & Nelson, R. J. (2013) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/mp.2012.96 · Cited by 112
Self-citationRaap, T., Pinxten, R., & Eens, M. (2016) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2016.04.100 · Cited by 125
Obayashi, K., Saeki, K., & Kurumatani, N. (2014) · Chronobiology International · doi:10.3109/07420528.2014.937491 · Cited by 110
“Exposure to light at night (LAN) is increasing globally, not only among night-shift workers but also among the general population because of the increased use of artificial lighting in modern society (Navara & Nelson, 2007).”
BackgroundIs part‐night lighting an effective measure to limit the impacts of artificial lighting on bats?
Azam, C., Kerbiriou, C., Vernet, A., Julien, J., Bas, Y., Plichard, L., Maratrat, J., & Viol, I. L. (2015) · Global Change Biology · doi:10.1111/gcb.13036 · Cited by 111
“As a result, major concerns have been raised about the hidden impacts of artificial lighting and the associated light pollution on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning (Rich & Longcore, 2006; Navara & Nelson, 2007; H€olker et al., 2010b).”
BackgroundLong-Term Space Nutrition: A Scoping Review
Tang, H., Rising, H. H., Majji, M., & Brown, R. D. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu14010194 · Cited by 124
A new source for high spatial resolution night time images — The EROS-B commercial satellite
Noam Levin, A., Johansen, K., Hacker, J., & Phinn, S. (2014) · Remote Sensing of Environment · doi:10.1016/j.rse.2014.03.019 · Cited by 110
González, S. A., Yáñez-Navea, K., & Muñoz, M. (2014) · Marine Pollution Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.03.042 · Cited by 109
“Consequently, many coastal habitats, communities and ecosystems are exposed year-round to the impact of artificial light (Longcore and Rich, 2004; Navara and Nelson, 2007; Hölker et al., 2010).”
BackgroundJones, T. M., Durrant, J., Michaelides, E. B., & Green, M. P. (2015) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2014.0122 · Cited by 109
“The ecological consequences of the increasing presence of artificial LAN are well documented in animals although the evidence from natural populations, in particular, is frequently correlational [2,4,5].”
Metadata
- Authors
- Navara, K. J., & Nelson, R. J.
- Affiliations
- The Ohio State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Navara, Kristen J.
- Venue
- Journal of Pineal Research
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2007-06-25
- Volume
- 43
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 215-224
- ISSN
- 0742-3098 (ISSN-L)
- 1600-079X
- OpenAlex
- W2111092972
- Cited by
- 795
- References
- 114
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 34 · 2024: 34 · 2023: 50 · 2022: 51 · 2021: 69 · 2020: 67 · 2019: 67 · 2018: 69 · 2017: 58 · 2016: 47 · 2015: 57 · 2014: 48 · 2013: 43 · 2012: 32
- FWCI
- 1.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Pineal Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (0416897)
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH-57535, R01MH057535, R01MH066144, MH-66144)
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (T32AI055411)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Impact of Light on Environment and Health
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Circadian rhythm and melatonin
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Sleep and Work-Related Fatigue
- Keywords
- light at night, light pollution, circadian rhythm disruption, melatonin, circadian rhythm, shift work, health effects, ecological consequences, behavioral effects, physiological effects
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Biological Clocks, Darkness, Disease, Ecology, Humans, Work, Oxidative Stress
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