Reducing food's environmental impacts through producers and consumers
Abstract
Food's environmental impacts are created by millions of diverse producers. To identify solutions that are effective under this heterogeneity, we consolidated data covering five environmental indicators; 38,700 farms; and 1600 processors, packaging types, and retailers. Impact can vary 50-fold among producers of the same product, creating substantial mitigation opportunities. However, mitigation is complicated by trade-offs, multiple ways for producers to achieve low impacts, and interactions throughout the supply chain. Producers have limits on how far they can reduce impacts. Most strikingly, impacts of the lowest-impact animal products typically exceed those of vegetable substitutes, providing new evidence for the importance of dietary change. Cumulatively, our findings support an approach where producers monitor their own impacts, flexibly meet environmental targets by choosing from multiple practices, and communicate their impacts to consumers.
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Most previous studies on sustainable meat have examined a limited range of aspects.
“Most previous studies on sustainable meat have examined a limited range of aspects (e.g., Clark and Tilman 2017; Poore and Nemecek 2018)”
From Delivering “less but better” meat in practice—a case study of a farm in agroecological transition (2022) · cites this paper as Poore and Nemecek 2018
The agricultural production-consumption cycle, including agricultural and food waste generation, contributes about one-third of global greenhouse gas emissions annually.
“agricultural production-consumption cycle (including agricultural and food waste generation) contribute significant to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of about one-third annually which is a significant contribution for a single sector (3).”
From Environmental Sustainability Assessment of Banana Peel Briquetting (2024) · cites this paper as [3]
Algae demonstrate superior land efficiency over several plant-based sources, with nuts requiring 7.9 m2, pulses 7.3 m2, grains 4.6 m2, and peas 3.4 m2 of land per kg of protein.
“Algae also demonstrate superior land efficiency over several plant-based sources, with nuts requiring 7.9 m2, pulses 7.3 m2, grains 4.6 m2, and peas 3.4 m2 of land per kg of protein [10].”
From Navigating the potential of algal peptides: health effects, market applications, and scientific challenges (2026) · cites this paper as [10]
Algal proteins require substantially less land than both animal- and plant-derived protein sources.
“In terms of land-use efficiency, algal proteins require substantially less land than both animal- and plant-derived protein sources.”
From Navigating the potential of algal peptides: health effects, market applications, and scientific challenges (2026) · cites this paper as [10]
Existing global comparisons of pasture-finished and grain-finished systems do not account for both carbon opportunity cost and soil carbon sequestration.
“Existing global comparisons of pasture-finished and grain-finished systems are incomplete as they do not account for both carbon opportunity cost and soil carbon sequestration.”
From Carbon opportunity cost increases carbon footprint advantage of grain-finished beef (2023) · cites this paper as [6]
Reviews and meta-analyses conclude that pasture-finished systems have higher average production emissions than grain-finished systems.
“Reviews and meta-analyses of these studies conclude that pasture-finished systems have higher average production emissions [4, 6, 7].”
From Carbon opportunity cost increases carbon footprint advantage of grain-finished beef (2023) · cites this paper as [6]
Most life-cycle assessments comparing the carbon footprint of beef production systems have been limited to production emissions.
“Most life-cycle assessments comparing the carbon footprint of beef production systems have been limited to production emissions.”
From Carbon opportunity cost increases carbon footprint advantage of grain-finished beef (2023) · cites this paper as [6]
Pasture-finished systems have higher land-use intensity on average than grain-finished systems.
“Recent meta-analyses show that pasture-finished systems have higher land-use intensity (measured as area per unit production) on average, since the amount of pasture needed in the finishing stage of pasture-finished cattle is much larger than the amount of cropland needed to provide grain for the finishing stage of grain-finished cattle [4, 6].”
From Carbon opportunity cost increases carbon footprint advantage of grain-finished beef (2023) · cites this paper as [6]
Agricultural food production emissions include 4.2 Gt CO2-eq year−1 from enteric fermentation, manure and pasture management, and fuel use in livestock production; 3.6 Gt CO2-eq year−1 from synthetic N fertilizer application and crop production; and 3.3 Gt CO2-eq year−1 from land-use change.
“with 4.2 Gt CO2-eq year−1 from enteric fermentation, manure and pasture management, and fuel use in livestock production, 3.6 Gt CO2-eq year−1 from synthetic N fertilizer application and crop production for human and animal food, and 3.3 Gt CO2-eq year−1 from changes in land use for crop-livestock production systems.114”
From Technologies and perspectives for achieving carbon neutrality (2021) · cites this paper as [114]
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- Authors
- Poore, J., & Nemecek, T.
- Affiliations
- University of Oxford (GB)
- Agroscope (CH)
- Corresponding author
- Poore, J.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Science
- Published
- 2018-06
- Volume
- 360
- Issue
- 6392
- Pages
- 987-992
- ISSN
- 0036-8075 (ISSN-L)
- 1095-9203
- OpenAlex
- W2806569362
- Cited by
- 6,085
- References
- 102
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1005 · 2025: 1069 · 2024: 960 · 2023: 896 · 2022: 808 · 2021: 694 · 2020: 401 · 2019: 204 · 2018: 41 · 2017: 1 · 2013: 3
- FWCI
- 253.23
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Agriculture Sustainability and Environmental Impact
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Sustainable Agricultural Systems Analysis
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Environmental Impact and Sustainability
- Keywords
- food supply chain, producer heterogeneity, animal products, plant-based diet, dietary change, food packaging, food processors, retail companies, customer communication, environmental objectives
- MeSH terms
- Crop Production, Animals, Animal Feed, Environment, Feeding Behavior, Food, Food Supply, Humans, Aquaculture, Food Packaging, Livestock
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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