The DOI matches its Crossref record; 48 of the 52 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 5 of the 41 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review
Open accessAbstract
Spirulina, a cyanobacteria commonly referred to as a blue-green algae, is one of the oldest lifeforms on Earth. Spirulina grows in both fresh and saltwater sources and is known for its high protein and micronutrient content. This review paper will cover the effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids. The currently literature supports the benefits of spirulina for reducing body fat, waist circumference, body mass index and appetite and shows that spirulina has significant benefits for improving blood lipids.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This narrative review concludes that spirulina supplementation may aid weight loss and improve blood lipids, based on animal and human studies. It reports reductions in body weight, BMI, waist circumference, appetite, total cholesterol, LDL-C, and triglycerides, while noting that larger trials are needed.
Key findings
- In 52 obese participants, 2 g/day spirulina plus caloric restriction for 12 weeks significantly reduced body weight by −3.22±1.97 kg, waist circumference by −3.37±2.65 kg, body fat by −2.28±1.74 kg, and BMI by −1.23±0.79 kg/m²; triglycerides fell by −18 mg/dL and high-sensitivity C reactive protein by −1.66±1.9 ng/mL.
- In 62 obese subjects, 1 g/day spirulina for 12 weeks reduced appetite by −4.16%, BMI by −1.9%, body weight by −1.79%, and total cholesterol by −4.67%, while HDL-C increased by 1.73%.
- A cited 2018 meta-analysis of 12 clinical studies found spirulina supplementation (1–19 g/day) significantly lowered total cholesterol (−36.60 mg/dL), LDL-C (−33.16 mg/dL), triglycerides (−39.2 mg/dL), VLDL-C (−8.02 mg/dL), fasting blood glucose (−5.01 mg/dL), and diastolic blood pressure (−7.17 mm Hg).
- The review states that supplementing 2–8 g/day may improve lipid profiles, particularly by reducing total cholesterol, triglycerides, and LDL-C and improving HDL-C, and may aid weight loss and reduce BMI.
Methods
- Narrative review of animal and human clinical trials on spirulina’s effects on weight loss and blood lipids.
- Summarizes multiple clinical studies in tables, including participants with obesity, hypertension, dyslipidaemia, type 2 diabetes, nephrotic syndrome, and elderly populations.
- Main analysis is qualitative synthesis; no new primary data are presented, and the review cites a 2015 systematic review and a 2018 meta-analysis.
Limitations
- The paper states that further research including larger clinical trials is warranted to confirm the benefits.
- The paper attributes variation in clinical trial responses to differences in dose, treatment duration, and patient responsiveness based on comorbidities.
- Evident from the text: as a narrative review, it does not describe a systematic search strategy, inclusion criteria, or formal risk-of-bias assessment, and many cited trials are small and heterogeneous.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
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Verification
Claims the paper makes
24 Not checked yet · 7 Own interpretation · 1 Supported · 1 Partly supported · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Thus, by suppressing adipocyte oxidative stress, spirulina may lead to systemic anti-inflammatory and insulin-sensitising effects.12–20”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Introduction > Anti-inflammatory effects of spirulina
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [12] Terry, 1993, Inactivation of phytochrome- and phycobiliprotein-chromophore precursors by rat liver biliverdin reductase, J Biol Chem source
- Not checked yetcites [13] source
- Not checked yetcites [14] Strasky, 2013, Spirulina platensis and phycocyanobilin activate atheroprotective heme oxygenase-1: a possible implication for atherogenesis, Food Funct source
- Not checked yetcites [15] source
- Partly supportedcites [16] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion (page not provided) reports that reducing adipose oxidative stress with apocynin in mice lowered adipose TNF-α expression, increased adiponectin, and improved metabolic measures; it also suggests that NADPH oxidase inhibitors might improve insulin sensitivity. The paper does not test spirulina or establish a systemic anti-inflammatory effect from it, so it supports the proposed mechanism but not its application to spirulina. (LLM, conf=0.86)
- Not checked yetcites [17] source
- Partly supportedcites [18] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion (page unavailable) reports that reducing ROS and proinflammatory cytokines through PU.1 silencing improves adipocyte insulin signaling; the Results (page unavailable) also report increased insulin-stimulated glucose uptake. The paper does not examine spirulina or establish systemic anti-inflammatory or insulin-sensitising effects, so it supports the proposed adipocyte mechanism but not those extensions. (LLM, conf=0.86)
- Partly supportedcites [19] Jankovic, 2015, Redox implications in adipose tissue (dys)function-A new look at old acquaintances, Redox Biol sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Conclusion and clinical implication section says that modulating adipose-tissue redox metabolism may help prevent or treat insulin resistance, and describes an antioxidant that reduced oxidative stress and inflammation in adipocytes. The paper does not discuss spirulina or establish that it suppresses adipocyte oxidative stress or produces systemic anti-inflammatory effects. Its support is therefore for the proposed general mechanism, not the spirulina-specific claim. (LLM, conf=0.86)
- Partly supportedcites [20] Prokudina, 2017, [The Role of Reactive Oxygen Species in the Pathogenesis of Adipocyte Dysfunction in Metabolic Syndrome. Prospects of Pharmacological Correction], Vestn Ross Akad Med Nauk sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract says adipocyte oxidative stress induces insulin resistance and increases secretion of the inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and TNF-α. The section on oxidative stress and adipocyte insulin resistance also describes impaired insulin-dependent glucose transport. These passages support the proposed mechanism, but the paper does not establish that spirulina suppresses adipocyte oxidative stress or produces systemic anti-inflammatory and insulin-sensitising effects. (LLM, conf=0.84)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Spirulina is composed of numerous antioxidants, including beta-carotene, phycocyanin, tocopherols, micronutrients, polyunsaturated fatty acids, particularly gamma-linolenic acid and phenolic compounds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and shows that spirulina has significant benefits for improving blood lipids.”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Abstract
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In 15 patients with non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus, supplementation of 2 g/day of spirulina for 2 months leads to significant reductions in TG, TC, LDL-C, VLDL-C and LDL-C/ HDL-C ratio.34”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Blood lipids > Clinical trials
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [34] Mani, 2000, Studies on the long-term effect of Spirulina supplementation on serum lipid profile and glycated proteins in NIDDM patients, J Diet Suppl
plaindirectn = 15- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In 2005, another study involved 51 elderly females with hypercholesterolaemia (TC >200 mg/dL) aged 60 years and above, where they were supplemented with 7.5 mg/day spirulina for 8 weeks in half of the study population and the other half were given placebo. Findings were significant for reductions in TC, LDL-C, oxidised LDL and apolipoprotein B.40”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Blood lipids > Clinical trials
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [40] Kim, 2005, The change of lipid metabolism and immune function caused by antioxidant material in the hypercholesterolemic elderly women in Korea, Korean J Nutr
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although caloric restriction and exercise are the mainstay treatments for obesity, spirulina has shown significant benefits in aiding weight loss.”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Introduction > Anti-inflammatory effects of spirulina
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The proposed mechanism of action of spirulina for weight loss is a reduction in macrophage infiltration into visceral fat, prevention of hepatic fat accumulation, reduction in oxidative stress, improvement in insulin sensitivity and satiety.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The antioxidant activity of spirulina has been proven to be directly proportional to the quantity of phycocyanin (which contains phycocyanobilin).12–14 45”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Summary of the mechanisms of action of spirulina
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [12] Terry, 1993, Inactivation of phytochrome- and phycobiliprotein-chromophore precursors by rat liver biliverdin reductase, J Biol Chem source
- Not checked yetcites [13] source
- Not checked yetcites [14] Strasky, 2013, Spirulina platensis and phycocyanobilin activate atheroprotective heme oxygenase-1: a possible implication for atherogenesis, Food Funct source
- Not checked yetcites [45] source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Spirulina is composed of numerous antioxidants, including beta-carotene, phycocyanin, tocopherols, micronutrients, polyunsaturated fatty acids, particularly gamma-linolenic acid and phenolic compounds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 26
- The quote only partly states this claim. 2
- Probably not a substantial claim. 1
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Furthermore, a recent 2018 meta-analysis of 12 clinical studies in humans showed that spirulina supplementation (1 g up to 19 g per day) significantly lowered TC (−36.60 mg/dL; p=0.0001), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (−33.16 mg/dL; p=0.0002), triglycerides (−39.2 mg/dL; p=0.0001), very-low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (−8.02 mg/dL; p=0.0001), fasting blood glucose (−5.01 mg/dL; p=0.04)”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Blood lipids > Clinical trials
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [41] Huang, 2018, Quantifying the effects of spirulina supplementation on plasma lipid and glucose concentrations, body weight, and blood pressure, Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes source
The Abstract Results report 12 eligible trials, spirulina doses of 1–19 g/day, and significant reductions in all six named measures. The Results section gives the same pooled estimates for the lipid measures and fasting blood glucose; it also reports a significant reduction in diastolic blood pressure. (LLM, conf=0.95)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
In the paper
“With administration of 5% spirulina, hepatic triacylglycerols decreased. Improvement in serum HDL and lowered serum LDL as well as VLDL was also noted.28”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Blood lipids > Animal studies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [28] Rodríguez-Hernández, 2001, Spirulina maxima prevents fatty liver formation in CD-1 male and female mice with experimental diabetes, Life Sci source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In 2005, Nagoaka et al demonstrated lower micellar solubility of cholesterol with bile acids and as a result reduced absorption of fats in the small intestine with higher faecal excretion of cholesterol and bile acid when fed with spirulina concentrates.”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Summary of the mechanisms of action of spirulina
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [44] Nagaoka, 2005, A novel protein C-phycocyanin plays a crucial role in the hypocholesterolemic action of Spirulina platensis concentrate in rats, J Nutr source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A systematic review published in 2015 encompassing eight humans studies concluded that spirulina has blood lipid lowering benefits and antioxidant effects.43”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Blood lipids > Clinical trials
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [43] Hernández Lepe, 2015, Spirulina and its hypolipidemic and antioxidant effects in humans: a systematic review], Nutr Hosp
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Additionally, spirulina can alter gut microbiota to have lipid lowering effects. Studies have revealed an increase in abundance of Prevotella, Porphyromonadaceae, Barnesiella and Paraprevotella.”
- Also stated in: § Animal studies · plain
“Firmicutes are another group of bacteria which have been associated with reduction in body weight and serum LDL-C levels, which improved with spirulina supplementation.29”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Blood lipids > Animal studies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [29] Li T-T , Liu Y-Y , Wan X-Z , et al . Regulatory Efficacy of the Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids from Microalgae Spirulina platensis on Lipid Metabolism and Gut Microbiota in High-Fat Diet Rats. Int J Mol Sci 2018;19. doi:doi:10.3390/ijms19103075. [Epub ahead of print: 09 Oct 2018]. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
- Also stated in: § Animal studies · plain
In the paper
“Li et al found that spirulina given for 8 weeks increased HDL-C and lowered LDL-C, TG and TC levels when fed a high fat diet.29 Similar to other previous studies, it was also shown to normalise hepatic steatosis with improvements in liver function tests, including transaminases, free fatty acids and overall lipid profile.”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Blood lipids > Animal studies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [29] Li T-T , Liu Y-Y , Wan X-Z , et al . Regulatory Efficacy of the Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids from Microalgae Spirulina platensis on Lipid Metabolism and Gut Microbiota in High-Fat Diet Rats. Int J Mol Sci 2018;19. doi:doi:10.3390/ijms19103075. [Epub ahead of print: 09 Oct 2018]. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Zeinalian et al studied 62 obese subjects after administering 1 g spirulina for 12 weeks and observed a significant reduction in appetite by −4.16% (p=0.008), BMI by −1.9% (p<0.001), body weight by −1.79% (p<0.001) and a reduction in total cholesterol (TC) by −4.67% (p=0.002).22”
- Also stated in: § Weight loss and blood lipids · plain
“Additionally, high density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C) was noted to increase by 1.73% (p=0.05) with no significant change in TG or low density lipoprotein (LDL).”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Introduction > Weight loss and blood lipids
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [22] Zeinalian, 2017, The effects of Spirulina platensis on anthropometric indices, appetite, lipid profile and serum vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in obese individuals: a randomized double blinded placebo controlled trial, BMC Complement Altern Med source
plaindirectn = 62 ·- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Reduction in appetite may be due to an improvement in leptin resistance in the arcuate nucleus.
- Also stated in: § Weight loss and blood lipids · plain
In the paper
“Those given spirulina were found to have significant improvements in their body mass from 92.96±18.58 kg to 88.97±17.13 kg (p<0.001), BMI from 33.5+6.7 kg/m2 to 31.7±5.8 kg/m2 (p<0.001) and waist circumference from 105.2±15.3 to 103.4+14.1 cm (p<0.002) versus baseline, a benefit that was not shown with the placebo.”
- Also stated in: § Weight loss and blood lipids · plain
“Compared with placebo-treated individuals, those given spirulina had significantly lowered LDL-cholesterol (LDL-C) from 3.5+0.9 mmol/L to 3.0±0.6 mmol/L (p<0.001) and interleukin-6 from 4.3±0.6 mmol/L to 3.9+0.4 mmol/L (p=0.002) and improved total antioxidant status from 1.8±0.3 to 2.2±1.0 mmol/L (p=0.001) and insulin sensitivity ratio from 3.2±1.8 mg/kg/min to 4.3±2.1 mg/kg/min (p<0.001).23”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Introduction > Weight loss and blood lipids
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [23] Szulinska, 2017, Spirulina maxima improves insulin sensitivity, lipid profile, and total antioxidant status in obese patients with well-treated hypertension: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study, Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci
plaindirectn = 50 ·- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Weight loss and blood lipids · plain
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As a whole, supplementing spirulina at 2–8 g/ day may improve lipid profiles, particularly by reducing TC, TG and LDL-c and improving HDL-c; improving apolipoprotein A1 and reducing apolipoprotein B, aiding weight loss and reducing BMI.”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Blood lipids > Clinical trials
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The proposed mechanism of action of spirulina for weight loss is a reduction in macrophage infiltration into visceral fat, prevention of hepatic fat accumulation, reduction in oxidative stress, improvement in insulin sensitivity and satiety.
In the paper
“Results were notable for a significant reduction in TC in the initial 4 weeks of spirulina supplementation, which returned to baseline with its discontinuation. These changes in TC were directly proportional to serum TC and dietary TC concentrations. There were no changes in HDL, TG or body weight.30”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Blood lipids > Clinical trials
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [30] Nakaya, 1988, Cholesterol lowering effect of spirulina, Nutrition reports international
plaindirectn = 30- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Additionally, phycocyanin residue diet increased the proportion of cholesterol excretion, thus indicating the hypolipaemic effects of spirulina, particularly from phycocyanin.44”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Summary of the mechanisms of action of spirulina
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [44] Nagaoka, 2005, A novel protein C-phycocyanin plays a crucial role in the hypocholesterolemic action of Spirulina platensis concentrate in rats, J Nutr source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Towards the end of the study period, plasma TC was lowered by 22.4% and 33.5% in group 1 and 2, respectively (p<0.01) and LDL by 31% and 45% (p<0.01), which were both statistically significant reductions. Higher reductions in both LDL and TC were noted among those treated with 4 g spirulina/day. In addition, HDL-C increased, while TG and VLDL decreased in both the experimental groups.”
- Also stated in: § Clinical trials · plain
“Similarly, body weight was reduced in both the treatment groups while there were no changes in lipid profiles or body weight in the control arm. The reduction in body weight in both groups given spirulina (−2.2 kg) was highly significant compared with control (0.7 kg; p<0.01).31”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Blood lipids > Clinical trials
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [31] Ramamoorthy A , Premakumari S . Effect of supplementation of Spirulina on hypercholesterolemic patients 1996.
plaindirectn = 30 ·- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Clinical trials · plain
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The variation in response in the clinical trials is likely due to the difference in dose, duration of treatment and responsiveness among patients based on their comorbidities.”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Blood lipids > Clinical trials
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“One study included 12 Korean patients between the age 60 and 75 years old who were supplemented with 7.5 g/day of spirulina for 24 weeks. The study found significant reductions in TGs, TC and LDL after 4 weeks of spirulina supplementation. There was no difference in the reduction among patients with mild hypercholesterolaemia (TC at or above 200 mg/dL) vs normocholesterolaemia.39”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Blood lipids > Clinical trials
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [39] Kim, 2003, The effects of Spirulina on lipid metabolism, antioxidant capacity and immune function in Korean Elderlies, Korean J Nutr
plaindirectn = 12- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In those given spirulina, there was significant reduction in BMI (26.9±3.1 vs 25.0±2.7 kg/m2, p=0.0032), weight (75.5±11.8 kg vs 70.5±10.3 kg, p<0.001), systolic blood pressure (149±7 mm Hg vs 143±9 mm Hg, p=0.0023) and arterial stiffness index (7.2±0.6 vs 6.9±0.7 m/s, p<0.001)”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Introduction > Weight loss and blood lipids
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [24] Miczke, 2016, Effects of spirulina consumption on body weight, blood pressure, and endothelial function in overweight hypertensive Caucasians: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial, Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci
plaindirectn = 40 ·- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Spirulina also seems to improve insulin resistance, antioxidant/anti-inflammatory properties, blood glucose and blood pressure as discussed in this article (table 2).”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Blood lipids > Clinical trials
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The proposed mechanism of action of spirulina for weight loss is a reduction in macrophage infiltration into visceral fat, prevention of hepatic fat accumulation, reduction in oxidative stress, improvement in insulin sensitivity and satiety.
In the paper
“At the end of study period, TC decreased by 116.33 mg/dL vs 69.87 mg/dL in control; LDL by 94.14 mg/dL vs 61 mg/dL in controls and triglycerides by 67.72 mg/dL vs 22.6 mg/dL in controls. LDL-C:HDL-C ratio decreased significantly by 1.66 vs 1.13 (p<0.05) and TC:HDL-C decreased by 1.96 vs 1.19.”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Blood lipids > Clinical trials
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [37] source
plaindirectn = 23 ·- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The results revealed a significant improvement in the lipid profile with concomitant increased activity of lipoprotein lipase (LPL), although the difference in lipid levels or LPL was not significantly different between 5%, 10% or 15% spirulina concentration groups.27”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Blood lipids > Animal studies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [27] Iwata, 1990, Effects of Spirulina platensis on plasma lipoprotein lipase activity in fructose-induced hyperlipidemic rats, J Nutr Sci Vitaminol source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Participants in the spirulina group had significantly lower body weight of −3.22+1.97 kg, waist circumference −3.37 ± 2.65 kg, body fat of −2.28+1.74 kg and BMI of −1.23±0.79 kg/m2 (p<0.001, p=0.049, p=0.049 and p=0.02, respectively).”
- Also stated in: § Weight loss and blood lipids · plain
“Additionally, triglycerides (TG) reduced by −18 mg/dL and high-sensitivity C reactive protein levels were lower by −1.66±1.9 ng/mL towards the end of the study period (p=0.03 and p=0.02, respectively).21”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Introduction > Weight loss and blood lipids
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [21] Yousefi, 2018, Spirulina platensis effectively ameliorates anthropometric measurements and obesity-related metabolic disorders in obese or overweight healthy individuals: a randomized controlled trial, Complement Ther Med source
plaindirectn = 52 ·- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
- Also stated in: § Weight loss and blood lipids · plain
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, the evidence in the literature suggests that spirulina improves several well-established CVD risk factors including hyperlipidaemia and seems to provide benefits around weight loss.”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Blood lipids > Clinical trials
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Phycocyanobilin is structurally similar to bilirubin and can inhibit NADPH oxidase.”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Summary of the mechanisms of action of spirulina
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [12] Terry, 1993, Inactivation of phytochrome- and phycobiliprotein-chromophore precursors by rat liver biliverdin reductase, J Biol Chem source
- Not checked yetcites [13] source
- Not checked yetcites [14] Strasky, 2013, Spirulina platensis and phycocyanobilin activate atheroprotective heme oxygenase-1: a possible implication for atherogenesis, Food Funct source
- Not checked yetcites [45] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Spirulina is composed of numerous antioxidants, including beta-carotene, phycocyanin, tocopherols, micronutrients, polyunsaturated fatty acids, particularly gamma-linolenic acid and phenolic compounds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The currently literature supports the benefits of spirulina for reducing body fat, waist circumference, body mass index and appetite”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Abstract
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The most recent randomised controlled trial included 78 individuals aged 60–87 years, who were randomly assigned to 8 g/day spirulina versus placebo for 16 weeks. The female were noted to have higher mean TC and LDL-C and also showed significant reductions in their plasma levels, TC from 200.5 to 184.8 mg/dL (p=0.03) and LDL from 126.7 to 112.1 mg/dL (p=0.05).41 In addition, interleukin-2 (IL-2)”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Blood lipids > Clinical trials
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [41] Huang, 2018, Quantifying the effects of spirulina supplementation on plasma lipid and glucose concentrations, body weight, and blood pressure, Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes source
plaindirectn = 78 ·- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Similarly, Parikh et al enrolled 25 type 2 diabetics and established that 2 g/day of spirulina for 2 months in this population can lower fasting blood glucose by 19.3 mg (p<0.05), postprandial blood glucose by 16.1 mg (p<0.05), HbA1c by 1.0% (p<0.05) in addition to lowering in TG by 6.4 mg, LDL-C by 7.1 mg, TC by 21.3 mg (p<0.05) and overall reduction in atherogenic indices of TC:HDL-C from 5.4±1.”
- Also stated in: § Clinical trials · plain
“Additionally, apolipoprotein B was lowered by 16.1 mg (p<0.05) with subsequent increases in apolipoprotein A1 levels by 11.4 mg (p<0.05), thus a favourable increase in A1:B ratio.”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Blood lipids > Clinical trials
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [35] source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Clinical trials · plain
In the paper
“One of the components of spirulina is noted to be glycolipid H-b2, which inhibits pancreatic lipase activity in a dose depended way, thus reducing postprandial TG levels.46”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Summary of the mechanisms of action of spirulina
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [46] Han, 2006, [Isolation of pancreatic lipase activity-inhibitory component of spirulina platensis and it reduce postprandial triacylglycerolemia], Yakugaku Zasshi source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Spirulina is composed of numerous antioxidants, including beta-carotene, phycocyanin, tocopherols, micronutrients, polyunsaturated fatty acids, particularly gamma-linolenic acid and phenolic compounds.
In the paper
“Additionally, spirulina also contains vitamin B3, also called niacin, which is also known to improve dyslipidaemia.49”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Summary of the mechanisms of action of spirulina
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [49] Zeb Shah, 2013, Effect of Nicotinic Acid (Vitamin B3 or Niacin) on the lipid profile of diabetic and non - diabetic rats, Pak J Med Sci
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Spirulina is composed of numerous antioxidants, including beta-carotene, phycocyanin, tocopherols, micronutrients, polyunsaturated fatty acids, particularly gamma-linolenic acid and phenolic compounds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Moreover, GLA deficiencies may worsen arterial thickness, hypertension and dyslipidaemia.47 48”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Summary of the mechanisms of action of spirulina
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [47] Hornych, 2002, The effect of gamma-linolenic acid on plasma and membrane lipids and renal prostaglandin synthesis in older subjects, Bratisl Lek Listy
- Not checked yetcites [48] source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Spirulina is composed of numerous antioxidants, including beta-carotene, phycocyanin, tocopherols, micronutrients, polyunsaturated fatty acids, particularly gamma-linolenic acid and phenolic compounds.
“Spirulina is composed of numerous antioxidants, including beta-carotene, phycocyanin, tocopherols, micronutrients, polyunsaturated fatty acids, particularly gamma-linolenic acid and phenolic compounds.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Spirulina is a low-cost nutritional supplement and has not been established to have any significant side effects.
“Spirulina is a low-cost nutritional supplement and has not been established to have any significant side effects.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The proposed mechanism of action of spirulina for weight loss is a reduction in macrophage infiltration into visceral fat, prevention of hepatic fat accumulation, reduction in oxidative stress, improvement in insulin sensitivity and satiety.
“The proposed mechanism of action of spirulina is a reduction in macrophage infiltration into visceral fat, prevention of hepatic fat accumulation, reduction in oxidative stress, improvement in insulin sensitivity and satiety.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Reduction in appetite may be due to an improvement in leptin resistance in the arcuate nucleus.
“Reduction in appetite may be due to an improvement in leptin resistance in the arcuate nucleus.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“In their study, DiNicolantonio et al. [155] validated the effects of spirulina on weight loss. They found that obese adults who consumed 1–2 g of spirulina per day for a period of three months saw a reduction in their body weight, body mass index (BMI), and waist circumference.”
From Trends and Technological Advancements in the Possible Food Applications of Spirulina and Their Health Benefits: A Review. (2022) · cites this paper as [155]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“In addition, spirulina includes vitamin B3 known as niacin, which corrects an imbalance in the lipids of the blood [155].”
From Trends and Technological Advancements in the Possible Food Applications of Spirulina and Their Health Benefits: A Review. (2022) · cites this paper as [155]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Blood lipids > Clinical trials
“they were supplemented with 7.5 mg/day spirulina for 8 weeks”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Blood lipids > Clinical trials
“| 2005 | Kim et al40 | 51 elderly females with hypercholesterolaemia (TC >200 mg/dL) aged 60 years and above | 7.5 g/day for 8 weeks |”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Blood lipids > Clinical trials
“supplementation of 2 g/day of spirulina for 2 months leads to significant reductions in TG, TC, LDL-C, VLDL-C and LDL-C/ HDL-C ratio.”
§ Effects of spirulina on weight loss and blood lipids: a review > Blood lipids > Clinical trials
“| 2000 | Mani et al34 | 15 T2DM | 2 g spirulina×2 months | Significant lowering in TC, LDL, VLDL, TG and HDL-C: LDL-C ratio.”
Citations
Cites
Ng, M., Fleming, T., Robinson, M., Thomson, B., Graetz, N., Margono, C., Mullany, E. C., Biryukov, S., Abbafati, C., Abera, S. F., et al. (2014) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(14)60460-8 · Cited by 11,952
Global status report on noncommunicable diseases 2010.
Alwan, A. (2011) · Cited by 8,494
Increased oxidative stress in obesity and its impact on metabolic syndrome
Furukawa, S., Fujita, T., Shimabukuro, M., Iwaki, M., Yamada, Y., Nakajima, Y., Nakayama, O., Makishima, M., Matsuda, M., & Shimomura, I. (2004) · Journal of Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1172/jci21625 · Cited by 5,508
Levesque, R. J. R. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-32132-5_447-2 · Cited by 4,060
The Global Epidemic of the Metabolic Syndrome
Saklayen, M. G. (2018) · Current Hypertension Reports · doi:10.1007/s11906-018-0812-z · Cited by 3,990
Relationship of obesity and visceral adiposity with serum concentrations of CRP, TNF-α and IL-6
Park, H. S., Park, J. Y., & Yu, R. (2005) · Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2004.11.007 · Cited by 964
Nutritional and medical importance of gamma-linolenic acid
Horrobin, D. F. (1992) · Progress in Lipid Research · doi:10.1016/0163-7827(92)90008-7 · Cited by 488
Antioxidant activity of different fractions of Spirulina platensis protean extract
Piñero Estrada, J. (2001) · Il Farmaco · doi:10.1016/s0014-827x(01)01084-9 · Cited by 447
Nagaoka, S., Shimizu, K., Kaneko, H., Shibayama, F., Morikawa, K., Kanamaru, Y., Otsuka, A., Hirahashi, T., & Kato, T. (2005) · The Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1093/jn/135.10.2425 · Cited by 246
Adipose Inflammation, Insulin Resistance, and Cardiovascular Disease
Shah, A. D., Mehta, N. N., & Reilly, M. P. (2008) · Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition · doi:10.1177/0148607108325251 · Cited by 218
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Kim, 2003, The effects of Spirulina on lipid metabolism, antioxidant capacity and immune function in Korean Elderlies, Korean J Nutr, 36, 287
- Kim, 2005, The change of lipid metabolism and immune function caused by antioxidant material in the hypercholesterolemic elderly women in Korea, Korean J Nutr, 38, 67
Cited by
Sorted by citations
AlFadhly, N. K. Z., Alhelfi, N., Altemimi, A. B., Verma, D. K., Cacciola, F., & Narayanankutty, A. (2022) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules27175584 · Cited by 225
Spínola, M. P., Mendes, A. R., & Prates, J. A. M. (2024) · Foods · doi:10.3390/foods13223656 · Cited by 146
Bioactive Properties of Spirulina: A Review
Anvar, A. A., & Nowruzi, B. (2021) · Microbial Bioactives · doi:10.25163/microbbioacts.412117b0719110521 · Cited by 116
Gentscheva, G., Nikolova, K., Panayotova, V., Peycheva, K., Makedonski, L., Slavov, P., Radusheva, P., Petrova, P., & Yotkovska, I. (2023) · Life · doi:10.3390/life13030845 · Cited by 106
Vieira, M. V., Turkiewicz, I. P., Tkacz, K., Fuentes-Grünewald, C., Pastrana, L. M., Fuciños, P., Wojdyło, A., & Nowicka, P. (2021) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules26247593 · Cited by 51
Metadata
- Authors
- DiNicolantonio, J. J., Bhat, A. G., & OKeefe, J.
- Affiliations
- Mid America Heart Institute, Kansas, Kansas, USA
- Baystate Medical Center (US)
- Saint Lukes Mid America Heart Institute, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri, USA
- Corresponding author
- DiNicolantonio, James J
- Venue
- Open Heart
- Publisher
- BMJ
- Published
- 2020-03
- Volume
- 7
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- e001003
- ISSN
- 2053-3624 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7061888
- OpenAlex
- W3010246130
- Semantic Scholar
- 75bf34f90db87ca50527e69c203b49f0731ed01a
- Cited by
- 98
- References
- 52
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 3
- FWCI
- 0.89
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Open Heart (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Aquatic Science › Seaweed-derived Bioactive Compounds
- Physical Sciences › Energy › Renewable Energy, Sustainability and the Environment › Algal biology and biofuel production
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Fatty Acid Research and Health
- Keywords
- Spirulina, cyanobacteria, weight loss, serum lipids, fat mass, waist circumference, body mass index, appetite, dietary supplementation
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Hypolipidemic Agents, Humans, Lipids, Obesity, Biomarkers, Weight Loss, Treatment Outcome, Anti-Obesity Agents, Dietary Supplements, Dyslipidemias, Spirulina
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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