The hierarchical taxonomy of psychopathology (HiTOP): a quantitative nosology based on consensus of evidence
Open accessAbstract
Traditional diagnostic systems went beyond empirical evidence on the structure of mental health. Consequently, these diagnoses do not depict psychopathology accurately, and their validity in research and utility in clinicalpractice are therefore limited. The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) consortium proposed a model based on structural evidence. It addresses problems of diagnostic heterogeneity, comorbidity, and unreliability. We review the HiTOP model, supporting evidence, and conceptualization of psychopathology in this hierarchical dimensional framework. The system is not yet comprehensive, and we describe the processes for improving and expanding it. We summarize data on the ability of HiTOP to predict and explain etiology (genetic, environmental, and neurobiological), risk factors, outcomes, and treatment response. We describe progress in the development of HiTOP-based measures and in clinical implementation of the system. Finally, we review outstanding challenges and the research agenda. HiTOP is of practical utility already, and its ongoing development will produce a transformative map of psychopathology.
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The HiTOP system proposes that mania symptoms associate with obsessive-compulsive symptoms such as checking, ordering, and cleaning.
“Interestingly, this is in line with the proposed Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) system, where symptoms of mania are thought to associate with obsessive-compulsive symptoms like checking, ordering, and cleaning (Kotov et al., 2017, 2021).”
From Using network analysis to examine connections between Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) processes, internalizing symptoms, and well-being in a sample of undergraduates (2023) · cites this paper as Kotov et al., 2021
Table 1 in §6.1 places both bipolar-related and obsessive-compulsive disorders within the internalizing spectrum, supporting a broad relationship in the HiTOP model. It does not say that mania symptoms specifically associate with checking, ordering, or cleaning; the Figure 1 text in §4 also does not establish those symptom-level associations. (LLM, conf=0.84)
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Self-citationComparison of alternative models for personality disorders, II: 6-, 8- and 10-year follow-up
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Stability and fluctuation of personality disorder features in daily life.
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Self-citationAssessing the evidence for shared genetic risks across psychiatric disorders and traits
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Symptom patterns in a group of mental hospital patients.
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Schizophrenia in the Internalizing-Externalizing Framework: A Third Dimension?
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Self-citationQuantifying Inhibitory Control as Externalizing Proneness: A Cross-Domain Model
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The distinction between symptoms and traits in the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP)
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Self-citationBottom-Up and Top-Down Paradigms for Psychopathology: A Half-Century Odyssey
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Self-citationValidating dimensions of psychosis symptomatology: Neural correlates and 20-year outcomes.
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Self-citationIntegrating psychotherapy with the hierarchical taxonomy of psychopathology (HiTOP).
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The structure and short-term stability of the emotional disorders: a dimensional approach
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Contextualizing neuroticism in the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology
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Self-citationExtraversion and psychopathology: A multilevel hierarchical review
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Self-citationHiTOP thought disorder, DSM-5 psychoticism, and five factor model openness
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Self-citationPrescribing according to diagnosis: how psychiatry is different
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The prefrontal cortex, pathological anxiety, and anxiety disorders
Kenwood, M. M., Kalin, N. H., & Barbas, H. (2021) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/s41386-021-01109-z · Cited by 339 · see citing works
“Prominent among them is the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP), which attempts to derive a hierarchical structure of psychopathology based on empirically derived clusters of disease features [302, 303].”
BackgroundWatson, D., Levin‐Aspenson, H. F., Waszczuk, M. A., Conway, C. C., Dalgleish, T., Dretsch, M. N., Eaton, N. R., Forbes, M. K., Forbush, K. T., Hobbs, K. A., et al. (2022) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.20943 · Cited by 285 · see citing works
Self-citationThe normative modeling framework for computational psychiatry
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“Initiatives such as RDoC 9,12,13 , HiTOP 10,14,15 , and ROAMER 16,17 were established in response and seek to refine the nosology of mental disorders by mapping biobehavioral dimensions that cut across heterogeneous disorder categories.”
BackgroundLinking RDoC and HiTOP: A new interface for advancing psychiatric nosology and neuroscience
Michelini, G., Palumbo, I. M., DeYoung, C. G., Latzman, R. D., & Kotov, R. (2021) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102025 · Cited by 285 · see citing works
Self-citationAndreassen, O. A., Hindley, G., Frei, O., & Smeland, O. B. (2023) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.21034 · Cited by 255 · see citing works
Revisiting the seven pillars of RDoC
Morris, S. E., Sanislow, C. A., Pacheco, J., Vaidyanathan, U., Gordon, J. A., & Cuthbert, B. N. (2022) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12916-022-02414-0 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
“The existence of several major initiatives to reframe psychiatric diagnosis, including the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology model [6], the network approach [7], and the clinical staging model [8], illustrates the ongoing need for new approaches to better understand psychopathology.”
BackgroundZhang, R., Peng, X., Song, X., Long, J., Wang, C., Zhang, C., Huang, R., & Lee, T. M. C. (2023) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291722000241 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
“…Moreover, there is a trend in diagnostic systems which suggests that psychopathology could be better characterized as dimensions [e.g. Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP)] (Kotov et al., 2017, 2021) and that depression is a latent continuous variable rather than a categorical entity.”
The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) in psychiatric practice and research
Kotov, R., Cicero, D. C., Conway, C., DeYoung, C. G., Dombrovski, A. Y., Eaton, N. R., First, M. B., Forbes, M. K., Hyman, S. E., Jonas, K. G., et al. (2022) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291722001301 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
“Many quantitative studies focused on people aged 15 to 65 who live in Western societies (Kotov et al., 2021).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationA review of approaches and models in psychopathology conceptualization research
Eaton, N. R., Bringmann, L. F., Elmer, T., Fried, E. I., Forbes, M. K., Greene, A. L., Krueger, R. F., Kotov, R., McGorry, P. D., Mei, C., et al. (2023) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-023-00218-4 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
“…the temporal ordering of structures or symptoms have been under-investigated, and HiTOP does not currently include constructs that reflect individual differences in within-person processes because few studies have investigated relations between these constructs and psychopathology dimensions 45 .”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationFonseca‐Pedrero, E., Díez-Gómez, A., Pérez‐Albéniz, A., Al‐Halabí, S., Lucas‐Molina, B., & Debbané, M. (2023) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2023.115486 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Tiego, J., Martin, E. A., DeYoung, C. G., Hagan, K. E., Cooper, S. E., Pasion, R., Satchell, L. P., Shackman, A. J., Bellgrove, M. A., Fornito, A., et al. (2023) · Nature Mental Health · doi:10.1038/s44220-023-00057-5 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Self-citationNeuroticism and disorders of emotion: a new synthesis
Barlow, D. H., Curreri, A. J., & Woodard, L. S. (2021) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/09637214211030253 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Grogans, S. E., Bliss-Moreau, E., Buss, K., Clark, L., Fox, A., Keltner, D., Cowen, A. S., Kim, J. J., Kragel, P., MacLeod, C., et al. (2023) · Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105237 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
“…bases of pathological fear and anxiety, including rampant co-morbidity, low symptom specificity, marked within-diagnosis heterogeneity, and poor inter-rater reliability (Bryant et al., 2023; Hur et al., 2019; Kotov et al., 2022; Kotov et al., 2021; Tiego et al., 2023; Watson et al., 2022).”
BackgroundSimms, L. J., Wright, A. G. C., Cicero, D. C., Kotov, R., Mullins‐Sweatt, S. N., Sellbom, M., Watson, D., Widiger, T. A., & Zimmermann, J. (2021) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/10731911211015309 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
“The HiTOP model has been fully described and depicted in numerous other publications (e.g., Kotov et al., 2017; Kotov et al., 2021; Ruggero et al., 2019).”
MethodSelf-citationThe Neuropsychology of Anxiety
McNaughton, N., & Gray, J. A. (2024) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198843313.001.0001 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
A Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) Primer for Mental Health Researchers
Conway, C., Forbes, M. K., & South, S. C. (2021) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026211017834 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Self-citationIt’s time to replace the personality disorders with the interpersonal disorders.
Wright, A. G. C., Ringwald, W. R., Hopwood, C. J., & Pincus, A. L. (2022) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/amp0001087 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Self-citationUtility and validity of the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS) as a transdiagnostic scale
Hofmann, A. B., Schmid, H. M., Jabat, M., Brackmann, N., Noboa, V., Bobes, J., García‐Portilla, M. P., Seifritz, E., Vetter, S., & Egger, S. (2022) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2022.114659 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
“We subsequently assigned all patients according to their treatment diagnoses to one of the three core dimensions of psychopathology (Kotov et al., 2017, 2021).”
InfluentialThe Psychedelic Future of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Treatment
Zaretsky, T. G., Jagodnik, K. M., Barsic, R., Antonio, J. H., Bonanno, P. A., MacLeod, C., Pierce, C., Carney, H., Morrison, M. T., Saylor, C. F., et al. (2024) · Current Neuropharmacology · doi:10.2174/1570159x22666231027111147 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Wright, A. G. C., Pincus, A. L., & Hopwood, C. J. (2023) · Journal of Psychopathology and Clinical Science · doi:10.1037/abn0000741 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Self-citationConsiderations toward an epigenetic and common pathways theory of mental disorder.
Nigg, J. T. (2023) · Journal of Psychopathology and Clinical Science · doi:10.1037/abn0000748 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Understanding anxiety symptoms as aberrant defensive responding along the threat imminence continuum
Abend, R. (2023) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105305 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
A critical evaluation of the p-factor literature
Watts, A. L., Greene, A. L., Bonifay, W. E., & Fried, E. I. (2023) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-023-00260-2 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Poor Separation of Clinical Symptom Profiles by DSM-5 Disorder Criteria
Newson, J. J., Pastukh, V., & Thiagarajan, T. C. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.775762 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Allostatic Interoceptive Overload Across Psychiatric and Neurological Conditions
Santamaría-García, H., Migeot, J., Medel, V., Hazelton, J. L., Teckentrup, V., Romero-Ortuno, R., Piguet, O., Lawor, B., Northoff, G., & Ibanez, A. (2025) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2024.06.024 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“This approach aligns with the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology framework (HiTOP) (153), which represents a signi fi cant paradigm shift toward dimensional and quantitative nosology of altered behaviors, echoing contemporary calls for broader transdiagnostic clinical characterizations.”
MethodPersonality Neuroscience: An Emerging Field With Bright Prospects
DeYoung, C. G., Beaty, R. E., Genç, E., Latzman, R. D., Passamonti, L., Servaas, M. N., Shackman, A. J., Smillie, L. D., Spreng, R. N., Viding, E. M., et al. (2022) · Personality Science · doi:10.5964/ps.7269 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“…traits like intelligence, the Big Five, or the dimensions of psychopathology represented in the hierarchical taxonomy of psychopathology (HiTOP; Kotov et al., 2021), it may sometimes be more tractable for personality neuroscience to study narrower traits and to develop hypotheses about their…”
BackgroundSelf-citationPerson–environment transactions differentiate personality and psychopathology
Hopwood, C. J., Wright, A. G. C., & Bleidorn, W. (2022) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-021-00004-0 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Self-citationRestoring the missing person to personalized medicine and precision psychiatry
Gómez-Carrillo, A., Paquin, V., Dumas, G., & Kirmayer, L. J. (2023) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2023.1041433 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“Newer research approaches thus aim to identify biological traits (endophenotypes) or mechanisms that underlie phenotypic expressions of psychopathology, thereby defining new categories of disorders either within or across existing diagnostic entities (Gottesman and Gould, 2003; Kendler and Neale, 2010; Kotov et al., 2…”
BackgroundCui, Z., Pines, A. R., Larsen, B., Sydnor, V. J., Li, H., Adebimpe, A., Alexander‐Bloch, A. F., Bassett, D. S., Bertolero, M. A., Calkins, M. E., et al. (2022) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2022.05.014 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“However, efforts including the Research Domain Criteria initiative and the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology have been proposed given increasing empirical evidence that psychopathology is a dimensional phenomenon that is highly comorbid in nature (13,15,16,43).”
Addictive and other mental disorders: a call for a standardized definition of dual disorders
Szerman, N., Torrens, M., Maldonado, R. J., Balhara, Y. P. S., Salom, C., Maremmani, I., Sher, L., Didia-Attas, J., Chen, J., & Baler, R. (2022) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-022-02212-5 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“While we wait for the many ongoing laudable efforts in this direction [88 – 91] to bear fruit, the WADD proposes adopting DD as the preferred standard terminology, a recommendation that is based not only on the listed drawbacks suffered by the competing terms but also on its own merits.”
Principles and procedures for revising the hierarchical taxonomy of psychopathology.
Forbes, M. K., Ringwald, W. R., Allen, T. A., Cicero, D. C., Clark, L. A., DeYoung, C. G., Eaton, N. R., Kotov, R., Krueger, R. F., Latzman, R. D., et al. (2023) · Journal of Psychopathology and Clinical Science · doi:10.1037/abn0000886 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Self-citationThe future of psychological treatments: The Marburg Declaration
Rief, W., Asmundson, G. J. G., Bryant, R. A., Clark, D. M., Ehlers, A., Holmes, E. A., McNally, R. J., Neufeld, C. B., Wilhelm, S., Jaroszewski, A. C., et al. (2024) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2024.102417 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Leucht, S., Siafis, S., McGrath, J. J., McGorry, P. D., Howes, O. D., Tamminga, C. A., Carr, R., Bighelli, I., Schneider‐Thoma, J., Priller, J., et al. (2025) · Nature Reviews Disease Primers · doi:10.1038/s41572-025-00667-6 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) 198 is a data-driven effort to create a diagnostic system.”
Embracing variability in the search for biological mechanisms of psychiatric illness
Segal, A., Tiego, J., Parkes, L., Holmes, A. J., Marquand, A. F., & Fornito, A. (2024) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2024.09.010 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Hagerty, S. L. (2022) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916221079597 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Do we need a novel framework for classifying psychopathology? A discussion paper
Rief, W., Hofmann, S. G., Berg, M., Forbes, M. K., Pizzagalli, D. A., Zimmermann, J., Fried, E. I., & Reed, G. M. (2023) · Clinical Psychology in Europe · doi:10.32872/cpe.11699 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopa thology (HiTOP) (Kotov et al., 2017; Kotov et al., 2021) recommends using a more data-driven approach to define symptom clusters organised within broader dimensions.”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationPrisco, M. D., Oliva, V., Fico, G., Raduà, J., Grande, I., Roberto, N., Anmella, G., Hidalgo‐Mazzei, D., Fornaro, M., de Bartolomeis, A., et al. (2023) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s003329172300243x · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“…this dimension lies above the classical diagnostic categories and could guide future genetic research better than Psychological Medicine the latter (Kotov et al., 2021) as well as to assist the development of treatments aimed at these transdiagnostic features (Capitão et al., 2022; Solmi et al.,…”
BackgroundPrioritization of Psychopathological Symptoms and Clinical Characterization in Psychiatric Diagnoses
Leucht, S., van Os, J., Jäger, M., & Davis, J. M. (2024) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2024.2652 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Psychosis superspectrum I: Nosology, etiology, and lifespan development
Jonas, K. G., Cannon, T. D., Docherty, A. R., Dwyer, D., Gur, R. C., Gur, R. E., Nelson, B., Reininghaus, U., & Kotov, R. (2024) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-023-02388-2 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“In the HiTOP model, functioning is assessed as a separate domain [71], and hence is included here as an auxiliary spectrum.”
Self-citationNew diagnosis in psychiatry: beyond heuristics
McGorry, P. D., Hickie, I. B., Kotov, R., Schmaal, L., Wood, S. J., Allan, S. M., Altınbaş, K., Boyce, N., Bringmann, L. F., Caspi, A., et al. (2025) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s003329172400223x · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“The initial model has been published and is updated as data become available (Kotov et al., 2022; Kotov et al., 2021; Kotov et al., 2017; Krueger et al., 2018).”
Self-citationMuñoz‐Navarro, R., Medrano, L. A., Limonero, J. T., González‐Blanch, C., Moriana, J. A., Ruiz‐Rodríguez, P., & Vindel, A. C. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.01.029 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Sandín, B., Espinosa, V., Valiente, R. M., García-Escalera, J., Schmitt, J. C., Arnáez, S., & Chorot, P. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.716528 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Recommendations for a Better Understanding of Sex and Gender in the Neuroscience of Mental Health
Wierenga, L. M., Ruigrok, A. N. V., Aksnes, E. R., Barth, C., Beck, D., Burke, S., Crestol, A., van Drunen, L., Ferrara, M., Galea, L. A. M., et al. (2023) · Biological Psychiatry Global Open Science · doi:10.1016/j.bpsgos.2023.100283 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“Despite the value of studies that use group-based paradigms, there is growing consensus in the fi eld about the need to include alternative research approaches that cut across the traditional categorical diagnostic boundaries, including transdiagnostic and dimensional frameworks (81 – 83) 2 .”
Models of mental health problems: a quasi-systematic review of theoretical approaches
Richter, D., & Dixon, J. (2022) · Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.1080/09638237.2021.2022638 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“Exclusively taxonomic approaches, referring for example to “ RDoc ” or “ HiTOP ” (Clark et al., 2017; Kotov et al., 2021) were also excluded.”
BackgroundSchleim, S. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.943049 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Beltz, A. M. (2022) · Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2022.101037 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Clinical Staging for Youth Mental Disorders: Progress in Reforming Diagnosis and Clinical Care
McGorry, P. D., & Mei, C. (2021) · Annual Review of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-devpsych-050620-030405 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Forbes, M. K., Baillie, A., Batterham, P. J., Calear, A. L., Kotov, R., Krueger, R. F., Markon, K. E., Mewton, L. R., Pellicano, E., Roberts, M., et al. (2024) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026241268345 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“…prominence as the field has sought alternative approaches to traditional diagnostic categories and systems, culminating in the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP), which aims to overcome the limitations of the traditional diagnostic categories and systems (Kotov et al., 2017, 2021).”
InfluentialSelf-citationDiversity and the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP)
Rodriguez-Seijas, C., Li, J. J., Balling, C. E., Brandes, C. M., Bernat, E. M., Boness, C. L., Forbes, M., Forbush, K. T., Joyner, K. J., Krueger, R., et al. (2023) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-023-00200-0 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Self-citationKerber, A., Ehrenthal, J. C., Zimmermann, J., Remmers, C., Nolte, T., Wendt, L. P., Heim, P., Müller, S., Beintner, I., & Knaevelsrud, C. (2024) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-024-03046-z · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“Using this approach, variance explained (i.e., squared semipartial correlation coef fi cient, SSPC) in affective well-being and psychosocial impairment by the reference factor (i.e., PF) can be disentangled from unique variance explained by the other factors.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialTraining the Next Generation of Clinical Psychological Scientists: A Data-Driven Call to Action
Gee, D. G., DeYoung, K. A., McLaughlin, K. A., Tillman, R. M., Barch, D. M., Forbes, E. E., Krueger, R. F., Strauman, T. J., Weierich, M. R., & Shackman, A. J. (2022) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-081219-092500 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Self-citationRaugh, I. M., Berglund, A. M., & Strauss, G. P. (2024) · Affective Science · doi:10.1007/s42761-024-00281-x · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“Clinical presentation was coded at four levels of specificity based on the HiTOP model (Kotov et al., 2017, 2021; Ringwald et al., 2021).”
The Normative Modeling Framework for Computational PsychiatryPreprint
Rutherford, S. E., Kia, S. M., Wolfers, T., Fraza, C., Zabihi, M., Dinga, R., Berthet, P., Worker, A., Verdi, S., Ruhé, H. G., et al. (2021) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2021.08.08.455583 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Wright, A. G. C., Pincus, A. L., & Hopwood, C. J. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/fknc8 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationAftab, A., Banicki, K., Ruffalo, M. L., & FRANCES, A. J. (2024) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/nmd.0000000000001791 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Waszczuk, M. A., Hopwood, C. J., Luft, B. J., Morey, L. C., Perlman, G., Ruggero, C. J., Skodol, A. E., & Kotov, R. (2021) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026211056596 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationMcNaughton, N., & Corr, P. J. (2021) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2021.11.005 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“[64,65]) of RDoC and HiTOP with addition of a tentative comparison of HiTOP with the Big 5.”
MethodHawn, S. E., Wolf, E. J., Neale, Z. E., & Miller, M. W. (2022) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2022.102177 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) Is Not an Improvement Over the DSM
Haeffel, G. J., Jeronimus, B. F., Fisher, A. J., Kaiser, B. N., Weaver, L. J., Vargas, I., Goodson, J. T., Soyster, P. D., & Lu, W. (2022) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026211068873 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“Empirical evidence must supersede popularity, endorsements, membership numbers, academic prowess, publication rates, and citation counts (cf. Kotov et al., 2021).”
Sharp, C., Clark, L. A., Balzen, K. M., Widiger, T., Stepp, S. D., Zimmerman, M. A., & Krueger, R. F. (2025) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.21339 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Self-citationKerber, A., Beintner, I., Burchert, S., & Knaevelsrud, C. (2023) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/45068 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“Therefore, contemporary models of psychopathology postulate dimensional spectra (eg, internalizing, thought disorder, and externalizing) comprising multiple mental health syndromes with co-occurring genetic, neurobiological, environmental, and behavioral indicators [20].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialBauer, B. W., Norel, R., Leow, A., Rached, Z. A., Wen, B., & Cecchi, G. (2024) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/57234 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“…support the superspectra put forth by the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP)—a recent statistically driven diagnostic classification system for mental disorders [26]—compared to traditional clusters found in the Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition [23].”
MethodCraske, M. G., Herzallah, M. M., Nusslock, R., & Patel, V. (2023) · Nature Mental Health · doi:10.1038/s44220-022-00012-w · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“Dimensional hierarchical models, such as the HiTop model 4,5 or the depression and anxiety Tri-level model 65,66 , have been gaining support as alternatives to categorical diagnoses.”
Sperry, S. H., Sharpe, B. M., & Wright, A. G. C. (2021) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000720 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Self-citationWendt, L. P., Jankowsky, K., Schroeders, U., Nolte, T., Fonagy, P., Montague, P. R., Zimmermann, J., & Olaru, G. (2022) · Personality and Mental Health · doi:10.1002/pmh.1566 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“…that many risk (e.g., adverse childhood experiences and low cognitive functioning) and outcome variables (e.g., self-harm and incarceration) are similarly related to psycho-pathology (e.g., Kotov et al., 2020; Krueger et al., 2021; Smith et al., 2020; Watson, Levin-Aspenson, et al., 2022).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialConway, C., Kotov, R., Krueger, R. F., & Caspi, A. (2022) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/amp0001046 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Previous research found consistent psychopathology structures across age, gender, race/ethnicity, and sexual orientation (Eaton, 2014; Eaton et al., 2012; He & Li, 2021; McElroy et al., 2018) as well as 24 Western and 25 non-Western societies (Ivanova et al., 2007, 2015, 2019; Krueger et al., 2003).”
BackgroundSelf-citationA Network Control Theory of Dynamic Systems Approach to Personalize Therapy
Hofmann, S. G. (2024) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2024.10.006 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Lages, Y., & McNaughton, N. (2022) · Personality Neuroscience · doi:10.1017/pen.2022.4 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“HiTOP/The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology initiative “constructs psychopathological syndromes and their components/subtypes based on the observed covariation of symptoms, [and] combines cooccurring syndromes into spectra, therebymapping out comorbidity” (Kotov et al., 2017, 2021).”
BackgroundUnifying Principles of Generalization: Past, Present, and Future
Wu, C. M., Meder, B., & Schulz, E. (2024) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-021524-110810 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“…rooted in targeted observations about features that were shared or differed between species (Doolittle & Bapteste 2007), and dimensional accounts of psychopathology similarly aim to capture shared symptom patterns across mental illnesses based on a targeted subset of features (Kotov et al. 2021).”
Passive Smartphone Sensors for Detecting Psychopathology
Ringwald, W. R., King, G. A., Vize, C. E., & Wright, A. G. C. (2025) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2025.19047 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Self-citationStrategies and foundations for scientific discovery in longitudinal studies of bipolar disorder
McInnis, M. G., Andreassen, O. A., Andreazza, A. C., Alon, U., Berk, M., Brister, T. S., Burdick, K. E., Cui, D., Frye, M. A., Leboyer, M., et al. (2022) · Bipolar Disorders · doi:10.1111/bdi.13198 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Sharp, C. (2022) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmra2120164 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Nature and Assessment of Personality Pathology and Diagnosis
Sharp, C., & Oldham, J. M. (2022) · American Journal of Psychotherapy · doi:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.20220016 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Balling, C. E., South, S. C., Lynam, D. R., & Samuel, D. B. (2023) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026221138818 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Hankin, B. L., & Griffith, J. M. (2023) · Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10567-023-00437-4 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) Consortium (e.g., Kotov et al., 2021), for example, provides a promising framework that illustrates how the field can employ stages 1 and 2 of the construct validation process to better understand and organize sur-face-level signs and symptoms of…”
DeYoung, C. G., Kotov, R., Krueger, R. F., Cicero, D. C., Conway, C., Eaton, N. R., Forbes, M. K., Hallquist, M. N., Jonas, K. G., Latzman, R. D., et al. (2021) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026211049390 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“Moreover, extensive evidence indicates that such constructs capture information about common genetics, risk factors, biomarkers, and treatment response shared by co-occurring forms of psychopathology (Kotov et al., 2020; Krueger et al., 2021; Watson et al., in press).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationKnott, R., Johnson, B. P., Tiego, J., Mellahn, O. J., Finlay, A., Kallady, K., Kouspos, M., Sindhu, V. P. M., Hawi, Z., Arnatkevičiūtė, A., et al. (2021) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/s13229-021-00457-3 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Integrating and distinguishing personality and psychopathology
Wright, A. G. C., & Hopwood, C. J. (2021) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12671 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationTransdiagnostic Approaches to Sexual- and Gender-Minority Mental Health
Eaton, N. R., Rodriguez-Seijas, C. A., & Pachankis, J. E. (2021) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/09637214211043918 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“Transdiagnostic factor models—such as the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP; Kotov et al., 2021)—represent underlying core dimensions of psychopathology that permeate traditional categorical diagnostic constructs.”
BackgroundSelf-citationHaywood, D., Baughman, F. D., Mullan, B., & Heslop, K. (2022) · Brain Science · doi:10.3390/brainsci12040421 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“Rather than classifying collections of symptoms into categories known as diagnoses, dimensional approaches typically assess symptoms and organise them into dimensional structures of psychopathology using factor analytic approaches [19,20].”
BackgroundTanaka, M. (2024) · Advances in Clinical and Experimental Medicine · doi:10.17219/acem/197425 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
The Use of Ontologies to Accelerate the Behavioral Sciences: Promises and Challenges
Sharp, C., Kaplan, R. M., & Strauman, T. J. (2023) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/09637214231183917 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“…as the National Institute of Mental Health Research Domain Criteria (Insel et al., 2010) and the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP; Kotov et al., 2021), address some problems of the DSM system (e.g., common co-occurrence of psychiatric disorders and heterogeneity within disorders)…”
BackgroundHoy, N. W., Lynch, S. J., Waszczuk, M., Reppermund, S., & Mewton, L. (2023) · Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105431 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“Importantly, a superordinate general dimension of psycho-pathology (often referred to as the p-factor) is positioned at the top of this hierarchical structure (Kotov et al., 2021).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationNew approaches to deep phenotyping in addictions.
Watts, A. L., Latzman, R. D., Boness, C. L., Kotov, R., Keyser‐Marcus, L., DeYoung, C. G., Krueger, R. F., Zald, D. H., Moeller, F. G., & Ramey, T. (2022) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/adb0000878 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Self-citationLavigne, K. M., Deng, J., Raucher‐Chéné, D., Hotte‐Meunier, A., Voyer, C., Sarraf, L., Lepage, M., & Sauvé, G. (2023) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2023.110894 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
McNaughton, N. (2022) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2022.877633 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“But the categories are based on symptoms (and often a required duration), not neurobiological causes, which are likely dimensional and reflected in traits (Kotov et al., 2021; Michelini et al., 2021; DeYoung et al., 2022).”
BackgroundHaywood, D., Henry, M., Dauer, E., Lederman, O., Farley, M. J., Henneghan, A. M., O’Connor, M., Jefford, M., Rossell, S. L., & Hart, N. H. (2024) · Supportive Care in Cancer · doi:10.1007/s00520-024-08696-9 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“Decades of data-driven research support the more accurate viewpoint of understanding mental health as existing dimensionally along spectrums rather than as distinct categories [11, 12].”
BackgroundMethodHaywood, D., Baughman, F. D., Mullan, B. A., & Heslop, K. (2021) · Psychiatry International · doi:10.3390/psychiatryint2030018 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“Furthermore, it has been suggested that these dimensional models may be used to inform treatment by basing and prioritising treatment decisions on the symptom dimensions at the various levels of the models’ hierarchy (see [27]).”
BackgroundPsychosocial work factors affecting mental health of young workers: a systematic review
van Veen, M., Hengel, K. M. O., Schelvis, R. M. C., Bongers, P. M., Ket, J. C. F., van der Beek, A. J., & Boot, C. R. L. (2022) · International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health · doi:10.1007/s00420-022-01907-y · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Alcohol use disorder criteria exhibit different comorbidity patterns
Watts, A. L., Watson, D., Heath, A. C., & Sher, K. J. (2023) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.16121 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationYan, R., Ringwald, W. R., Vega, J., Kehl, M., Bae, S. W., Dey, A. K., Low, C. A., Wright, A. G. C., & Doryab, A. (2021) · Future Generation Computer Systems · doi:10.1016/j.future.2022.02.010 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationEditorial: an emerging field with bright prospects
Corr, P. J., & Mobbs, D. (2023) · Personality Neuroscience · doi:10.1017/pen.2022.6 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“This is facilitated by the integration of the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP; Kotov et al., 2021) system, which is an attempt from various mental health disciplines to improve the organisation, description, and measurement of psychopathology.”
MethodPickersgill, M. D. (2023) · Sociology of Health & Illness · doi:10.1111/1467-9566.13682 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Zhong, Q., Niu, L., Chen, K., Lee, T. M. C., & Zhang, R. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2024.09.031 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Personality traits associate with behavioral problems in pet dogs
Salonen, M. K., Mikkola, S., Hakanen, E., Sulkama, S., Puurunen, J., & Lohi, H. (2022) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-022-01841-0 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“S1a–f) [21, 25], but we also defined a structure based on previous canine behavior studies (Supplementary Fig.”
BackgroundBi, X.-A., Li, L., Wang, Z., Wang, Y., Luo, X., & Xu, L. (2022) · Briefings in Bioinformatics · doi:10.1093/bib/bbac093 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Recommendations for Adjudicating Among Alternative Structural Models of Psychopathology
Waldman, I. D., King, C. D., Poore, H. E., Luningham, J. M., Zinbarg, R. E., Krueger, R. F., Markon, K. E., Bornovalova, M. A., Chmielewski, M. S., Conway, C., et al. (2023) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026221144256 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“…HiTOP model is intended to reduce the heterogeneity within and comorbidity among diagnostic categories, and its components are intended to be construed as testable hypotheses that are subject to falsification and revision (DeYoung et al., 2022; Kotov et al., 2021; Krueger et al., 2018).”
BackgroundSelf-citationShafiei, G., Esper, N., Hoffmann, M., Ai, L., Chen, A. A., Cluce, J., Covitz, S., Giavasis, S., Lane, C., Mehta, K., et al. (2025) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2025.08.026 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Tyrer, P. J., Mulder, R., Newton‐Howes, G., & Duggan, C. F. (2022) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.2021.220 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Hyland, P., Karatzias, T., Ford, J. D., Fox, R. J., & Spinazzola, J. (2022) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-022-00925-1 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
- Authors
- Kotov, R., Krueger, R. F., Watson, D., Cicero, D. C., Conway, C. C., DeYoung, C. G., Eaton, N. R., Forbes, M. K., Hallquist, M. N., Latzman, R. D., Mullins-Sweatt, S. N., Ruggero, C. J., Simms, L. J., Waldman, I. D., Waszczuk, M. A., & Wright, A. G. C.
- Affiliations
- Stony Brook University (US)
- University of Minnesota (US)
- University of Notre Dame (US)
- University of North Texas (US)
- Fordham University (US)
- Macquarie University (AU)
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
- Georgia State University (US)
- Department of Psychology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74078, USA
- University at Buffalo, State University of New York (US)
- Emory University (US)
- Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science (US)
- University of Pittsburgh (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kotov, Roman
- ORCID
- Venue
- Annual Review of Clinical Psychology
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2021-05-07
- Volume
- 17
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 83-108
- ISSN
- 1548-5943 (ISSN-L)
- 1548-5951
- OpenAlex
- W3127024923
- Cited by
- 596
- References
- 138
- Citations by year
- 2026: 101 · 2025: 108 · 2024: 146 · 2023: 110 · 2022: 87 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 2
- FWCI
- 15.67
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Annual Review of Clinical Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R56MH122537)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Disorders and Psychopathology
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Mental Health and Psychiatry
- Keywords
- Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology, disease classification, dimensional models of psychopathology, diagnostic heterogeneity, comorbidities, diagnostic reliability, etiology of mental disorders, risk factors, treatment response, clinical implementation
- MeSH terms
- Mental Disorders, Humans, Mental Health, Psychopathology, Comorbidity, Practice Guidelines as Topic, Consensus
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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