Disorders of Bone Remodeling
Open accessAbstract
The skeleton provides mechanical support for stature and locomotion, protects vital organs, and controls mineral homeostasis. A healthy skeleton must be maintained by constant bone modeling to carry out these crucial functions throughout life. Bone remodeling involves the removal of old or damaged bone by osteoclasts (bone resorption) and the subsequent replacement of new bone formed by osteoblasts (bone formation). Normal bone remodeling requires a tight coupling of bone resorption to bone formation to guarantee no alteration in bone mass or quality after each remodeling cycle. However, this important physiological process can be derailed by a variety of factors, including menopause-associated hormonal changes, age-related factors, changes in physical activity, drugs, and secondary diseases, which lead to the development of various bone disorders in both women and men. We review the major diseases of bone remodeling, emphasizing our current understanding of the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms.
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OPG, a soluble receptor also produced by osteoblasts that acts as a decoy receptor and neutralizes RANKL, prevents RANKL from interacting with RANK and consequently inhibits osteoclast proliferation, activity, and survival.
“OPG, a soluble receptor also produced by osteoblasts that acts as a decoy receptor and neutralizes RANKL, prevents RANKL from interacting with RANK and consequently inhibits osteoclast proliferation, activity, and survival [73, 74].”
From The Effect of Tobacco Smoking on Bone Mass: An Overview of Pathophysiologic Mechanisms (2018) · cites this paper as [73]
In the Postmenopausal Osteoporosis section (page not provided), the paper describes OPG as a soluble decoy receptor that competes with RANK for RANKL and says OPG is derived primarily from osteoblast-lineage cells. It says RANKL stimulates osteoclast formation, activation, and survival, but does not specifically establish that OPG inhibits osteoclast proliferation; formation is not necessarily proliferation. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredOnce RANKL binds to its natural receptor, expressed by osteoclast precursor cells, it stimulates osteoclast precursor differentiation to active mature osteoclasts and accelerates bone resorption.
“Once RANKL binds to its natural receptor, expressed by osteoclast precursor cells, it stimulates osteoclast precursor differentiation to active mature osteoclasts and accelerates bone resorption [73].”
From The Effect of Tobacco Smoking on Bone Mass: An Overview of Pathophysiologic Mechanisms (2018) · cites this paper as [73]
Abnormal increase in osteoclast formation and activity leads to bone diseases such as osteoporosis, where resorption exceeds formation causing decreased bone density and increased bone fractures.
“Abnormal increase in osteoclast formation and activity leads to some bone diseases such as osteoporosis, where resorption exceeds formation causing decreased bone density and increased bone fractures [105].”
From Biology of Bone Tissue: Structure, Function, and Factors That Influence Bone Cells (2015) · cites this paper as [105]
In patients with chronic liver disease, the balance between osteoclasts and osteoblasts is affected by liver disease, resulting in bone remodeling unit imbalance.
“In patients with chronic liver disease, the balance between osteoclasts and osteoblasts is affected by liver disease, resulting in BRU imbalance [46,50].”
From Bone diseases in patients with chronic liver disease (2019) · cites this paper as [46]
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Biology of Bone Tissue: Structure, Function, and Factors That Influence Bone Cells
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“This idea is supported by genetic studies in humans and mice as well as by pharmacological studies [105, 171].”
BackgroundResultOsteoblast-Osteoclast Communication and Bone Homeostasis
Kim, J., Lin, C., Stavre, Z., Greenblatt, M. B., & Shim, J. (2020) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells9092073 · Cited by 1,216 · see citing works
“bone resorption is tightly regulated without a major alteration in a net bone mass or mechanical strength under homeostatic conditions [2].”
BackgroundOxidative stress in bone remodeling: role of antioxidants
Domazetovic, V (2017) · Clinical Cases in Mineral and Bone Metabolism · doi:10.11138/ccmbm/2017.14.1.209 · Cited by 758 · see citing works
“In fact, bone is a dynamic tissue that continuously renews itself throughout life by the coordinated action of three major types of bone cells: osteoclasts, osteoblasts and osteocytes (28, 29).”
BackgroundKenkre, J. E., & Bassett, J. H. D. (2018) · Annals of Clinical Biochemistry International Journal of Laboratory Medicine · doi:10.1177/0004563218759371 · Cited by 719 · see citing works
“This field has been previously extensively reviewed by Feng and McDonald, and therefore this review will focus specifically on osteoporosis.(140) Osteoporosis is the most common metabolic bone disorder and resultant fragility fractures are associated with increased morbidity and mortality; its European prevalence is 2…”
MethodType H blood vessels in bone modeling and remodeling
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“In bone modeling, bone formation occurs independently of bone resorption, whereas bone resorption and formation are coupled during bone remodeling to maintain skeletal homeostasis [3-5].”
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“Bone is also an important reservoir for a number of minerals including calcium, phosphate, magnesium and organic molecules including collagen fibers and amorphous matrix.(1,2) To facilitate these classical functions and to maintain the integrity of the skeleton, constant remodeling of its architecture and composition…”
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Mechanical sensing protein PIEZO1 regulates bone homeostasis via osteoblast-osteoclast crosstalk
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Self-citationOsteoimmunology: The conceptual framework unifying the immune and skeletal systems
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“Subsequently, evidence from human and mouse genetics supported this hypothesis (111, 416).”
BackgroundThe gut-bone axis: How bacterial metabolites bridge the distance
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“Skeletal involution is determined by the process of bone remodeling, which involves the continuous removal of packets of old bone by the resorptive action of osteoclasts, and their replacement by new bone formed by osteoblasts (1, 2).”
BackgroundWnt Pathway in Bone Repair and Regeneration – What Do We Know So Far
Houschyar, K. S., Tapking, C., Borrelli, M. R., Popp, D., Duscher, D., Maan, Z. N., Chelliah, M. P., Li, J., Harati, K., Wallner, C., et al. (2019) · Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology · doi:10.3389/fcell.2018.00170 · Cited by 296 · see citing works
“, 2010) through two opposing but synergistic processes; bone resorption and bone formation (Feng and McDonald, 2011).”
BackgroundA concise review of testosterone and bone health
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“If bone modeling fails, usually due to genetic diseases or severe malnutrition, the consequences are highly disabling at best, but more often fatal in infancy if not treated [3].”
BackgroundBreast cancer metastasis to the bone: mechanisms of bone loss
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“A thorough review of bone remodeling is beyond the scope of this article, and there are several excellent, recent reviews [8,9].”
BackgroundAging, inflammation, immunity and periodontal disease
Ebersole, J. L., Graves, C. L., González, O. A., Dawson, D. R., Morford, L. A., Emecen‐Huja, P., Hartsfield, J. K., Huja, S. S., Pandruvada, S. N. M., & Wallet, S. M. (2016) · Periodontology 2000 · doi:10.1111/prd.12135 · Cited by 308 · see citing works
“Numerous immune and nonimmune cells within the periodontium communicate with both osteoblasts and osteoclasts, modulating the balance of physiologic bone formation and resorption, whereby bone metabolism can also be modulated by multiple factors, including aging (48, 175).”
Chitosan based nanofibers in bone tissue engineering
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Advances in mesenchymal stem cell transplantation for the treatment of osteoporosis
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Angiogenic factors in bone local environment
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“An alternative model has also been presented suggesting that capillaries might physically penetrate the canopy into the BRC [54,55].”
BackgroundThe effect of icariin on bone metabolism and its potential clinical application
Wang, Z., Wang, D., Yang, D., Zhen, W., Zhang, J., & Peng, S. (2017) · Osteoporosis International · doi:10.1007/s00198-017-4255-1 · Cited by 236 · see citing works
“activity, osteoclastogenesis, and increased bone resorption [29].”
Macrophage-Osteoclast Associations: Origin, Polarization, and Subgroups
Sun, Y., Li, J., Xie, X., Gu, F., Sui, Z., Zhang, K., & Yu, T. (2021) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2021.778078 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
“Continued bone remodeling is necessary to maintain these crucial functions by preventing the accumulation of bone injuries, and sustaining both calcium homeostasis and bone strength (1, 2).”
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“Knowledge about age-related changes in the composition and phenotype of cells in the periodontium, which lead to alveolar bone resorption, gave birth to the concept of “osteoimmunology” (Feng and McDonald, 2011; Schett, 2016; Terashima and Takayanagi, 2018; Okamoto and Takayanagi, 2019).”
BackgroundSelenoprotein W ensures physiological bone remodeling by preventing hyperactivity of osteoclasts
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BackgroundMiR‐214 is an important regulator of the musculoskeletal metabolism and disease
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“An imbalance in the regulation of bone remodeling is the cause of many bone diseases, including osteoporosis, osteopetrosis, and Paget’s disease of bone (Feng & McDonald, 2011; Kular et al., 2012).”
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- Authors
- Feng, X., & McDonald, J. M.
- Affiliations
- University of Alabama at Birmingham (US)
- ORCID
- Feng, Xu
- Venue
- Annual Review of Pathology: Mechanisms of Disease
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2011-02-28
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 121-145
- ISSN
- 1553-4006 (ISSN-L)
- 1553-4014
- PMC
- PMC3571087
- OpenAlex
- W2166266977
- Cited by
- 1,272
- References
- 171
- Citations by year
- 2026: 59 · 2025: 109 · 2024: 102 · 2023: 124 · 2022: 135 · 2021: 142 · 2020: 107 · 2019: 117 · 2018: 86 · 2017: 68 · 2016: 59 · 2015: 47 · 2014: 36 · 2013: 37 · 2012: 29
- FWCI
- 3.28
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- Annual Review of Pathology Mechanisms of Disease (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Cancer Institute (R01CA109119)
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (R21NS061677, NS061677)
- National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (5P30 AR0406031, R01AR047830, AR 47830, R01AR050235)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Bone Metabolism and Diseases
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Bone health and osteoporosis research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Oncology › Bone health and treatments
- Keywords
- bone remodeling, bone resorption, bone formation, osteoclasts, osteoblasts, bone disease, menopause, hormonal changes, age-related bone loss, physical activity, drug-induced bone loss, mineral homeostasis, pathophysiology
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Bone Diseases, Humans, Bone Remodeling
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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