The neural mediators of kindness-based meditation: a theoretical model
Open accessAbstract
Although kindness-based contemplative practices are increasingly employed by clinicians and cognitive researchers to enhance prosocial emotions, social cognitive skills, and well-being, and as a tool to understand the basic workings of the social mind, we lack a coherent theoretical model with which to test the mechanisms by which kindness-based meditation may alter the brain and body. Here, we link contemplative accounts of compassion and loving-kindness practices with research from social cognitive neuroscience and social psychology to generate predictions about how diverse practices may alter brain structure and function and related aspects of social cognition. Contingent on the nuances of the practice, kindness-based meditation may enhance the neural systems related to faster and more basic perceptual or motor simulation processes, simulation of another's affective body state, slower and higher-level perspective-taking, modulatory processes such as emotion regulation and self/other discrimination, and combinations thereof. This theoretical model will be discussed alongside best practices for testing such a model and potential implications and applications of future work.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Oxytocin plays a role in both relaxation and secure attachment physiology and is associated with greater pro-social behaviors.
“Oxytocin plays a role in both relaxation and secure attachment physiology and is also associated with greater pro-social behaviors (e.g., improved face expression recognition, enhanced encoding of positive social memories; Isgett, Algoe, Boulton, Way, & Fredrickson, 2016; Mascaro et al, 2015; Strathearn, Fonagy, Amico, & Montague, 2009).”
From A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of the Effects of Meditation on Empathy, Compassion, and Prosocial Behaviors (2018) · cites this paper as Mascaro et al, 2015
The Neuromodulatory Backdrop section links oxytocin to prosocial behaviors and to vagal activity and reduced sympathetic responses to stress, which supports the prosocial and relaxation-related parts of the claim. It does not discuss secure attachment physiology or the specific examples of facial-expression recognition and positive social-memory encoding. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredMeditation was associated with altered activation in areas of the prefrontal cortex.
“Meditation was also associated with altered activation in areas of the prefrontal cortex (Mascaro, Darcher, Negi, & Raison, 2015; Weng et al., 2013).”
From A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of the Effects of Meditation on Empathy, Compassion, and Prosocial Behaviors (2018) · cites this paper as Mascaro, Darcher, Negi, & Raison, 2015
Emotion regulation is thought to play a role in the effects of LKM on pro-social outcomes.
“and emotion regulation is thought to play a role in the effects of LKM on pro-social outcomes (Mascaro et al., 2015).”
From A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of the Effects of Meditation on Empathy, Compassion, and Prosocial Behaviors (2018) · cites this paper as Mascaro et al., 2015
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Heart Rate Variability: Standards of Measurement, Physiological Interpretation, and Clinical Use
Electrophysiology, T. F. O. T. E. S. O. C. T. N. A. (1996) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/01.cir.93.5.1043 · Cited by 17,159 · see citing works
The cognitive control of emotion
OCHSNER, K., & GROSS, J. (2005) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2005.03.010 · Cited by 4,495 · see citing works
Empathy: its ultimate and proximate bases
Preston, S. D., & de Waal, F. B. M. (2002) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x02000018 · Cited by 4,126 · see citing works
Shapiro, S. L., Carlson, L. E., Astin, J. A., & Freedman, B. (2006) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.20237 · Cited by 4,002 · see citing works
Porges, S. W. (2007) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2006.06.009 · Cited by 3,415 · see citing works
Hölzel, B. K., Lazar, S. W., Gard, T., Schuman-Olivier, Z., Vago, D. R., & Ott, U. (2011) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691611419671 · Cited by 3,024 · see citing works
Attention regulation and monitoring in meditation
Lutz, A., Slagter, H. A., Dunne, J. D., & Davidson, R. J. (2008) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2008.01.005 · Cited by 2,659 · see citing works
Rethinking feelings: an fMRI study of the cognitive regulation of emotion
Ochsner, K. N., Bunge, S. A., Gross, J. J., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2002) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/089892902760807212 · Cited by 2,520 · see citing works
Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy
de Waal, F. B. M. (2008) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625 · Cited by 2,483 · see citing works
Empathy: A Social Psychological Approach
Davis, M. H. (1994) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.34-2454 · Cited by 2,442 · see citing works
Empathy and Moral Development: Implications for Caring and Justice
Raboteg-Šarić, Z., & Hoffman, M. L. (2001) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/3089337 · Cited by 2,416 · see citing works
Fredrickson, B. L., Cohn, M. A., Coffey, K. A., Pek, J., & Finkel, S. M. (2008) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0013262 · Cited by 2,365 · see citing works
The role of the amygdala in fear and anxiety
Davis, M. (1992) · Annual Review of Neuroscience · doi:10.1146/annurev.ne.15.030192.002033 · Cited by 2,357 · see citing works
Lamm, C., Decety, J., & Singer, T. (2011) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.10.014 · Cited by 2,016 · cited 1× · see citing works
“For example, simply shifting attention toward or away from social cues can upor down-regulate empathic processes (Zaki, 2014), a regulatory process that arguably involves the amygdala, in some cases relying on it (Todd et al., 2012), in other cases modulating it (Larson et al., 2013).”
BackgroundSocial Cognitive Neuroscience: A Review of Core Processes
Lieberman, M. D. (2007) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085654 · Cited by 2,010 · see citing works
The social neuroscience of empathy
Singer, T., & Lamm, C. (2009) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04418.x · Cited by 1,981 · see citing works
Neural mechanisms of empathy in humans: a relay from neural systems for imitation to limbic areas
Carr, L., Iacoboni, M., Dubeau, M.-C., Mazziotta, J. C., & Lenzi, G. L. (2003) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0935845100 · Cited by 1,978 · see citing works
Davis, M. H. (2018) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780429493898 · Cited by 1,859 · see citing works
Gilbert, P., & Procter, S. (2006) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.507 · Cited by 1,822 · cited 4× · see citing works
“, 2009, 2013), and with other studies showing compassion-based practices lead to decreased depression (Gilbert and Procter, 2006), and supports the idea that one active ingredient in compassion practices is the amelioration of depression and attendant activity of the innate immune response, essentially unmasking the u…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialPessoa, L., & Adolphs, R. (2010) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn2920 · Cited by 1,794 · see citing works
The empathic brain: how, when and why?
de Vignemont, F., & Singer, T. (2006) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2006.08.008 · Cited by 1,716 · see citing works
The origins and nature of compassion focused therapy
Gilbert, P. (2014) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjc.12043 · Cited by 1,593 · see citing works
Introducing compassion-focused therapy
Gilbert, P. (2009) · Advances in Psychiatric Treatment · doi:10.1192/apt.bp.107.005264 · Cited by 1,435 · see citing works
The mirror neuron system and the consequences of its dysfunction
Iacoboni, M., & Dapretto, M. (2006) · Nature reviews. Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn2024 · Cited by 1,401 · see citing works
Altruism and Prosocial Behavior
Batson, C. D., & Powell, A. A. (2003) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/0471264385.wei0519 · Cited by 1,353 · see citing works
Vago, D. R., & Silbersweig, D. A. (2012) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00296 · Cited by 1,310 · see citing works
Social exclusion decreases prosocial behavior
Twenge, J. M., Baumeister, R. F., DeWall, C. N., Ciarocco, N. J., & Bartels, J. M. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.1.56 · Cited by 1,271 · see citing works
Batson, C. D., Fultz, J., & Schoenrade, P. A. (1987) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1987.tb00426.x · Cited by 1,246 · see citing works
The neuroscience of empathy: Progress, pitfalls and promise
Zaki, J., & Ochsner, K. N. (2012) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn.3085 · Cited by 1,231 · see citing works
Amygdala–frontal connectivity during emotion regulation
Banks, S. J., Eddy, K. T., Angstadt, M., Nathan, P. J., & Phan, K. L. (2007) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsm029 · Cited by 1,187 · see citing works
These things called empathy: Eight related but distinct phenomena.
Batson, C. (2009) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/9780262012973.003.0002 · Cited by 1,181 · see citing works
Paroxetine for the prevention of depression induced by high-dose interferon alfa.
Musselman, D. L., Lawson, D. H., Gumnick, J. F., Manatunga, A. K., Penna, S., Goodkin, R. S., Greiner, K., Nemeroff, C. B., & Miller, A. H. (2001) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejm200103293441303 · Cited by 1,120 · see citing works
Urry, H. L., van Reekum, C. M., Johnstone, T., Kalin, N. H., Thurow, M. E., Schaefer, H. S., Jackson, C. A., Frye, C. J., Greischar, L. L., Alexander, A. L., et al. (2006) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.3215-05.2006 · Cited by 1,056 · see citing works
Loving-Kindness and Compassion Meditation: Potential for Psychological Interventions
Hofmann, S. G., Grossman, P., & Hinton, D. E. (2011) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2011.07.003 · Cited by 960 · see citing works
Bernhardt, B. C., & Singer, T. (2012) · Annual Review of Neuroscience · doi:10.1146/annurev-neuro-062111-150536 · Cited by 952 · see citing works
Lutz, A., Brefczynski-Lewis, J., Johnstone, T., & Davidson, R. J. (2008) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0001897 · Cited by 942 · see citing works
The psychological effects of meditation: a meta-analysis
Sedlmeier, P., Eberth, J., Schwarz, M., Zimmermann, D., Haarig, F., Jaeger, S., & Kunze, S. (2012) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0028168 · Cited by 910 · see citing works
Yasuma, F., & Hayano, J.-I. (2004) · Chest · doi:10.1378/chest.125.2.683 · Cited by 907 · see citing works
Is there a core neural network in empathy? an fMRI based quantitative meta-analysis
Fan, Y., Duncan, N. W., de Greck, M., & Northoff, G. (2011) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.10.009 · Cited by 902 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Though not consistently activated by many of the empathy-forpain tasks utilized by functional neuroimagers (Fan et al., 2011; Lamm et al., 2011), the amygdala is arguably a core structure that subserves empathy and compassion.”
BackgroundZaki, J. (2014) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0037679 · Cited by 852 · see citing works
The Polyvagal Theory: phylogenetic contributions to social behavior
Porges, S. W. (2003) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0031-9384(03)00156-2 · Cited by 848 · see citing works
Jackson, P. L., Brunet, E., Meltzoff, A. N., & Decety, J. (2006) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2005.07.015 · Cited by 838 · see citing works
Hein, G., Silani, G., Preuschoff, K., Batson, C. D., & Singer, T. (2010) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2010.09.003 · Cited by 821 · see citing works
Oxytocin receptor genetic variation relates to empathy and stress reactivity in humans
Rodrigues, S. M., Saslow, L. R., Garcia, N., John, O. P., & Keltner, D. (2009) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0909579106 · Cited by 812 · see citing works
The power of simulation: Imagining one's own and other's behavior
Decety, J., & Grèzes, J. (2006) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2005.12.115 · Cited by 790 · see citing works
Oxytocin enhances amygdala-dependent, socially reinforced learning and emotional empathy in humans
Hurlemann, R., Patin, A., Onur, O. A., Cohen, M. X., Baumgartner, T., Metzler, S., Dziobek, I., Gallinat, J., Wagner, M., Maier, W., et al. (2010) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.5538-09.2010 · Cited by 771 · see citing works
Loving-kindness meditation increases social connectedness.
Hutcherson, C. A., Seppala, E. M., & Gross, J. J. (2008) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0013237 · Cited by 758 · see citing works
Kok, B. E., Coffey, K. A., Cohn, M. A., Catalino, L. I., Vacharkulksemsuk, T., Algoe, S. B., Brantley, M., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2013) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797612470827 · Cited by 755 · see citing works
Pace, T. W. W., Negi, L. T., Adame, D. D., Cole, S. P., Sivilli, T. I., Brown, T. D., Issa, M. J., & Raison, C. L. (2009) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.08.011 · Cited by 748 · cited 3× · see citing works
“The optimistic outlook on such a negative cycle is that compassion practices may present an equally powerful intervention that targets the cycle at multiple sites by augmenting both subjective feelings of social connectivity and the biological systems that support it (Pace et al., 2009, 2013).”
BackgroundResultSelf-citationOxytocin pathways and the evolution of human behavior
Carter, C. S. (2014) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115110 · Cited by 714 · see citing works
Differential pattern of functional brain plasticity after compassion and empathy training
Klimecki, O. M., Leiberg, S., Ricard, M., & Singer, T. (2014) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nst060 · Cited by 676 · see citing works
Child Rearing and Children's Prosocial Initiations toward Victims of Distress
Zahn‐Waxler, C., Radke‐Yarrow, M., & King, R. A. (1979) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1979.tb04112.x · Cited by 665 · see citing works
Functional Neural Plasticity and Associated Changes in Positive Affect After Compassion Training
Klimecki, O. M., Leiberg, S., Lamm, C., & Singer, T. (2013) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhs142 · Cited by 634 · see citing works
The complex relation between morality and empathy
Decety, J., & Cowell, J. M. (2014) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2014.04.008 · Cited by 632 · see citing works
Heart rate variability reflects self-regulatory strength, effort, and fatigue
Segerstrom, S. C., & Nes, L. S. (2007) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01888.x · Cited by 606 · see citing works
Compassion training alters altruism and neural responses to suffering.
Weng, H. Y., Fox, A. S., Shackman, A. J., Stodola, D. E., Caldwell, J. Z. K., Olson, M. C., Rogers, G. M., & Davidson, R. J. (2013) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797612469537 · Cited by 602 · see citing works
Influence of self-reported distress and empathy on egoistic versus altruistic motivation to help.
Batson, C. D., O'Quin, K. E., Fultz, J., Vanderplas, M., & Isen, A. M. (1983) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.45.3.706 · Cited by 589 · see citing works
Integrating simulation and theory of mind: from self to social cognition
Keysers, C., & Gazzola, V. (2007) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2007.02.002 · Cited by 530 · see citing works
DeWall, C. N., & Baumeister, R. F. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.1 · Cited by 529 · see citing works
Respiratory sinus arrhythmia, emotion, and emotion regulation during social interaction
Butler, E. A., Wilhelm, F. H., & Gross, J. J. (2006) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2006.00467.x · Cited by 520 · see citing works
Meditation practices for health: state of the research.
(2007) · PubMed Central · Cited by 516 · see citing works
Francis, D. D., Champagne, F. C., & Meaney, M. J. (2000) · Journal of Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2826.2000.00599.x · Cited by 496 · see citing works
An fMRI investigation of empathy for ‘social pain’ and subsequent prosocial behavior
Masten, C. L., Morelli, S. A., & Eisenberger, N. I. (2010) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.11.060 · Cited by 492 · see citing works
Child Rearing and Children's Prosocial Initiations toward Victims of Distress
Zahn‐Waxler, C., Radke‐Yarrow, M., & King, R. A. (1979) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1129406 · Cited by 488 · see citing works
Power, Distress, and Compassion: Turning a Blind Eye to the Suffering of Others
van Kleef, G. A., Oveis, C., van der Löwe, I., LuoKogan, A., Goetz, J., & Keltner, D. (2008) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02241.x · Cited by 482 · see citing works
Enhancing Compassion: A Randomized Controlled Trial of a Compassion Cultivation Training Program
Jazaieri, H., Jinpa, T., McGonigal, K. M., Rosenberg, E. L., Finkelstein, J., Simon-Thomas, E. R., Cullen, M., Doty, J. R., Gross, J. J., & Goldin, P. R. (2012) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-012-9373-z · Cited by 474 · see citing works
Neural correlates of admiration and compassion
Immordino‐Yang, M. H., McColl, A., Damásio, H., & Damásio, A. R. (2009) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0810363106 · Cited by 466 · see citing works
Empathic Responding: Sympathy and Personal Distress
Eisenberg, N., & Eggum, N. D. (2009) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/9780262012973.003.0007 · Cited by 459 · see citing works
Desbordes, G., Negi, L. T., Pace, T. W. W., Wallace, B. A., Raison, C. L., & Schwartz, E. L. (2012) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00292 · Cited by 458 · see citing works
Self-citationGender Differences, Motivation, and Empathic Accuracy: When it Pays to Understand
Klein, K. J. K., & Hodges, S. D. (2001) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167201276007 · Cited by 440 · see citing works
Neural correlates of social cooperation and non-cooperation as a function of psychopathy
Rilling, J. K., Glenn, A. L., Jairam, M. R., Pagnoni, G., Goldsmith, D. R., Elfenbein, H. A., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (2007) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.07.021 · Cited by 408 · see citing works
Effect of kindness-based meditation on health and well-being: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
Galante, J., Galante, I., Bekkers, M.-J., & Gallacher, J. (2014) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0037249 · Cited by 380 · see citing works
Numan, M., & Stolzenberg, D. S. (2008) · Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2008.10.002 · Cited by 361 · see citing works
Visions of CompassionWestern Scientists and Tibetan Buddhists Examine Human Nature
Davidson, R. J., & Harrington, A. (2002) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195130430.001.0001 · Cited by 346 · see citing works
Jazaieri, H., McGonigal, K. M., Jinpa, T., Doty, J. R., Gross, J. J., & Goldin, P. R. (2013) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-013-9368-z · Cited by 343 · see citing works
Blair, J. (2008) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0027 · Cited by 343 · see citing works
Affect-biased attention as emotion regulation
Todd, R. M., Cunningham, W. A., Anderson, A. K., & Thompson, E. (2012) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2012.06.003 · Cited by 336 · see citing works
Cox, C. L., Uddin, L. Q., Di Martino, A., Castellanos, F. X., Milham, M. P., & Kelly, C. (2012) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsr051 · Cited by 333 · see citing works
The neural components of empathy: Predicting daily prosocial behavior
Morelli, S. A., Rameson, L. T., & Lieberman, M. D. (2012) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nss088 · Cited by 316 · see citing works
Thompson, E. T. (2001) · Cited by 315 · see citing works
Braehler, C., Gumley, A., Harper, J., Wallace, S., Norrie, J., & Gilbert, P. (2013) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjc.12009 · Cited by 294 · see citing works
Schumann, K., Zaki, J., & Dweck, C. S. (2014) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0036738 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
Empathic responsiveness in amygdala and anterior cingulate cortex in youths with psychopathic traits
Marsh, A. A., Finger, E. C., Fowler, K. A., Adalio, C. J., Jurkowitz, I. T. N., Schechter, J. C., Pine, D. S., Jean Decety, A., & Blair, J. (2013) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12063 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
Inflammation selectively enhances amygdala activity to socially threatening images
Inagaki, T. K., Muscatell, K. A., Irwin, M. R., Cole, S. W., & Eisenberger, N. I. (2012) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.10.090 · Cited by 264 · see citing works
Rockliff, H., Gilbert, P., McEwan, K., Lightman, S. L., & Glover, D. G. (2008) · University of Derby Online Research Archive. (University of Derby) · Cited by 234 · see citing works
The neural and hormonal bases of human parentalcare
Rilling, J. K. (2013) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.12.017 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Compassion meditation enhances empathic accuracy and related neural activity
Mascaro, J. S., Rilling, J. K., Tenzin Negi, L., & Raison, C. L. (2013) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nss095 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
Self-citationGale, C., Gilbert, P., Read, N., & Goss, K. (2014) · Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.1806 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
Kagerbauer, S. M., Martin, J., Schuster, T., Blobner, M., Kochs, E. F., & Landgraf, R. (2013) · Journal of Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1111/jne.12038 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Sympathy, distress, and prosocial behavior of preschool children in four cultures
Trommsdorff, G., Friedlmeier, W., & Mayer, B. (2007) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025407076441 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
Neural and cognitive characteristics of extraordinary altruists
Marsh, A. A., Stoycos, S. A., Brethel-Haurwitz, K. M., Robinson, P., VanMeter, J. W., & Cardinale, E. M. (2014) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1408440111 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Inferior frontal gyrus activity triggers anterior insula response to emotional facial expressions.
Jabbi, M., & Keysers, C. (2008) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0014194 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
Preston, S. D., & Mohr, A. H. (2012) · Emotion Review · doi:10.1177/1754073911421378 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
Social Regulation of Human Gene Expression
Cole, S. W. (2009) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01623.x · Cited by 187 · see citing works
The Social neuroscience of empathy
(2009) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.47-0576 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Dissociating the ability and propensity for empathy
Keysers, C., & Gazzola, V. (2014) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2013.12.011 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Insel, T. R. (1990) · Journal of Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2826.1990.tb00445.x · Cited by 164 · see citing works
A pilot study of loving-kindness meditation for the negative symptoms of schizophrenia
Johnson, D. P., Penn, D. L., Fredrickson, B. L., Kring, A. M., Meyer-Kalos, P., Catalino, L. I., & Brantley, M. M. (2011) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2011.02.015 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Neurons in the Monkey Amygdala Detect Eye Contact during Naturalistic Social Interactions
Mosher, C. P., Zimmerman, P. E., & Gothard, K. M. (2014) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2014.08.063 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Testicular volume is inversely correlated with nurturing-related brain activity in human fathers
Mascaro, J. S., Hackett, P. D., & Rilling, J. K. (2013) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1305579110 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Self-citationAcute lesions that impair affective empathy
Leigh, R., Oishi, K., Hsu, J., Lindquist, M., Gottesman, R. F., Jarso, S., Crainiceanu, C., Mori, S., & Hillis, A. E. (2013) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awt177 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Cusi, A. M., MacQUEEN, G. M., Spreng, R. N., & McKinnon, M. C. (2011) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2011.04.013 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Shepard, S. A., Murphy, B. C., Jones, S. L., & Guthrie, I. K. (1998) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.34.5.910 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Neurons in the human amygdala selective for perceived emotion
Wang, S., Tudusciuc, O., Mamelak, A. N., Ross, I. B., Adolphs, R., & Rutishauser, U. (2014) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1323342111 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
The Development of Empathy in Infants
Bischof-Köhler, D. (1991) · Open access LMU (Ludwid Maxmilian's Universitat Munchen) · doi:10.5282/ubm/epub.2915 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Pace, T. W. W., Negi, L. T., Dodson‐Lavelle, B., Silva, B. O.-D., Reddy, S. D., Cole, S. P., Danese, A., Craighead, L. W., & Raison, C. L. (2012) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.05.019 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Self-citationEmpathy-Related Responding and Cognition: A “Chicken and the Egg” Dilemma
Eisenberg, N., Shea, C., Carlo, G., & Knight, G. P. (2014) · doi:10.4324/9781315807287-11 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Larson, C. L., Baskin-sommers, A. R., Stout, D. M., Balderston, N. L., Curtin, J. J., Schultz, D. H., Kiehl, K. A., & Newman, J. P. (2013) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-013-0172-8 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Personality Predicts Obedience in a M ilgram Paradigm
Bègue, L., Beauvois, J., Courbet, D., Oberlé, D., Lepage, J., & Duke, A. A. (2014) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12104 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
A preliminary study of long-term meditators: Goals, effects, religious orientation, cognitions.
Shapiro, D. H. (1992) · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Mascaro, J. S., Hackett, P. D., & Rilling, J. K. (2014) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.04.014 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Self-citationBOLD signal and functional connectivity associated with loving kindness meditation
Garrison, K. A., Scheinost, D., Constable, R. T., & Brewer, J. A. (2014) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.219 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Compassionate attitude towards others' suffering activates the mesolimbic neural system
Kim, J.-W., Kim, S.-E., Kim, J.-J., Jeong, B., Park, C.-H., Son, A. R., Song, J. E., & Ki, S. W. (2009) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.03.017 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Altruistic Behavior and the Development of the Self in Infants.
Johnson, D. B. (1982) · Merrill-palmer Quarterly · Cited by 76 · see citing works
The great treatise on the stages of the path to enlightenment
Blo-bzaṅ-grags-pa, T.-K.-P., Cutler, J. W. C., & Newland, G. M. (2000) · Snow Lion Publications eBooks · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Heriot-Maitland, C., Vidal, J., Ball, S., & Irons, C. (2014) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjc.12040 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Pre-existing brain function predicts subsequent practice of mindfulness and compassion meditation
Mascaro, J. S., Rilling, J. K., Negi, L. T., & Raison, C. L. (2012) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.12.021 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Self-citationThe great treatise on the stages of the path to enlightenment
Tsongkhapa, J. (2000) · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Compassion‐focused therapy: Preface and introduction for special section
Gilbert, P. (2014) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjc.12045 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Is Compassion An Emotion? A Cross-Cultural Exploration of Mental Typologies
Dreyfus, G. (2002) · Visions of CompassionWestern Scientists and Tibetan Buddhists Examine Human Nature · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195130430.003.0003 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Empathy versus compassion: Lessons from 1st and 3rd person methods
Klimecki, O., Ricard, M., & Singer, T. (2013) · MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Attachment theory and compassion focused therapy for depression
Gilbert, P. (2013) · doi:10.4324/9781315883496-15 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
(2009) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/8206.003.0003 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
(2009) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/8206.003.0009 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
3 of the 127 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Bloom P. (2014). “Against empathy,” in Boston Review. Cambridge, MA Available at: www.bostonreview.net/forum/paul-bloom-against-empathy
- Mascaro J. S. (2011). A Longitudinal Investigation of Empathic Behavior and Neural Activity and their Modulation by Compassion Meditation. Ph.D. thesis, Emory University, Atlanta, GA.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Luberto, C. M., Shinday, N., Song, R., Philpotts, L. L., Park, E. R., Fricchione, G. L., & Yeh, G. Y. (2018) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-017-0841-8 · Cited by 346 · see citing works
Alexander, R., Aragón, O. R., Bookwala, J., Cherbuin, N., Gatt, J. M., Kahrilas, I. J., Kästner, N., Lawrence, A. B., Lowe, L. J., Morrison, R., et al. (2020) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.12.002 · Cited by 329 · see citing works
The effect of loving-kindness meditation on positive emotions: a meta-analytic review
Zeng, X., Chiu, C. P. K., Wang, R., Oei, T. P. S., & Leung, F. Y. K. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01693 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
Explorations into the nature and function of compassion
Gilbert, P. (2019) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.12.002 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
Burgess, D. J., Beach, M. C., & Saha, S. (2017) · Patient Education and Counseling · doi:10.1016/j.pec.2016.09.005 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Facts and Possibilities: A Model‐Based Theory of Sentential Reasoning
Khemlani, S., Byrne, R. M. J., & Johnson-Laird, P. N. (2018) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.12634 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Differences in the Semantics of Prosocial Words: an Exploration of Compassion and Kindness
Gilbert, P., Basran, J. K., MacArthur, M., & Kirby, J. N. (2019) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-019-01191-x · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Meditation buffers medical student compassion from the deleterious effects of depression
Mascaro, J. S., Kelley, S., Darcher, A., Negi, L. T., Worthman, C. M., Miller, A. H., & Raison, C. L. (2016) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2016.1233348 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Self-citationA model for cognitively-based compassion training: theoretical underpinnings and proposed mechanisms
Ash, M. J., Harrison, T., Pinto, M. D., DiClemente, R. J., & Negi, L. T. (2019) · Social Theory & Health · doi:10.1057/s41285-019-00124-x · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Self-citationOxytocin Release during the Meditation of Altruism and Appreciation (Arigato-Zen)
町田, 宗., Sunagawa, M., & Takahashi, T. (2018) · International Journal of Neurology Research · doi:10.17554/j.issn.2313-5611.2018.04.75 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Trautwein, F., Naranjo, J. R., & Schmidt, S. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01785 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
A Priori True and False Conditionals
Quelhas, A. C., Rasga, C., & Johnson-Laird, P. N. (2017) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.12479 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Crosswell, A. D., Mayer, S. E., Whitehurst, L. N., Picard, M. A., Zebarjadian, S., & Epel, E. S. (2023) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/rev0000453 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Association between salivary serotonin and the social sharing of happiness
Matsunaga, M., Ishii, K., Ohtsubo, Y., Noguchi, Y., Ochi, M., & Yamasue, H. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0180391 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Kirby, J. N., & Gilbert, P. (2019) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-018-1088-8 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Love and compassion meditation: a nondual perspective
Josipovic, Z. (2016) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.13078 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Self-Compassion as a Mediator of Mindfulness and Compassion for Others
Fulton, C. L. (2018) · Counseling and Values · doi:10.1002/cvj.12072 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
The development and validation of the Lovingkindness-Compassion Scale
Cho, H., Noh, S., Park, S., Ryu, S., Misan, V., & Lee, J.-S. (2017) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.12.019 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Rodríguez-Carvajal, R., García-Rubio, C., Paniagua, D., García-Diex, G., & de Rivas, S. (2016) · Anales de Psicología · doi:10.6018/analesps.32.3.261681 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Mindfulness meditation weakens attachment to self: Evidence from a self vs other binding task
Chiarella, S. G., Makwana, M., Simione, L., Hartkamp, M., Calabrese, L., Raffone, A., & Srinivasan, N. (2020) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-020-01457-9 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Compassion Meditation Training for Hospital Chaplain Residents: A Pilot Study
Ash, M. J., Walker, E. R., DiClemente, R. J., Florian, M. P., Palmer, P. K., Wehrmeyer, K., Negi, L. T., Grant, G. H., Raison, C. L., & Mascaro, J. S. (2020) · Journal of Health Care Chaplaincy · doi:10.1080/08854726.2020.1723189 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Self-citationPlasma oxytocin is modulated by mental training, but does not mediate its stress-buffering effect
Hoehne, K., Vrtička, P., Engert, V., & Singer, T. (2022) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2022.105734 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Telke, S. E., Leininger, B. D., Hanson, L., & Kreitzer, M. J. (2022) · Journal of Integrative and Complementary Medicine · doi:10.1089/jicm.2020.0512 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Neural and Genetic Correlates of the Social Sharing of Happiness
Matsunaga, M., Kawamichi, H., Umemura, T., Hori, R., Shibata, E., Kobayashi, F., Suzuki, K., Ishii, K., Ohtsubo, Y., Noguchi, Y., et al. (2017) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2017.00718 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Visualizing Compassion: Episodic Simulation as Contemplative Practice
Wilson‐Mendenhall, C. D., Dunne, J. D., & Davidson, R. J. (2022) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-022-01842-6 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Editorial: Neuroimaging and Neuropsychology of Meditation States
Tomasino, B., & Fabbro, F. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01757 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Alaerts, K., Taillieu, A., Prinsen, J., & Daniëls, N. (2021) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2021.105397 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Explorations into the nature and function of compassionPreprint
Gilbert, P. (2018) · doi:10.31231/osf.io/tz49q · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Kindness-informed allyship praxis
Williams, K. S., Weigand, H., Okoroafor, S., Liuzzo, G., & Weigand, E. (2023) · Equality Diversity and Inclusion An International Journal · doi:10.1108/edi-06-2021-0145 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Woodruff, C. C., & Stevens, L. C. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-809837-0.00011-8 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Google Mini: Italian Example of Artificial Prosociality
Papapicco, C. (2020) · Online Journal of Communication and Media Technologies · doi:10.29333/ojcmt/7995 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Romano, L. E., & Chang, D. F. (2022) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci12110778 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Professionalising care into compliance: The challenge for personalised care models
Cole, C., Mummery, J., & Peck, B. (2022) · Nursing Inquiry · doi:10.1111/nin.12541 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Religion and Psychiatry in the Age of Neuroscience
Phillips, J. E., El-Gabalawi, F., Fallon, B. A., Majeed, S., Merlino, J. P., Nields, J. A., Saunders, D. C., & Norko, M. A. (2020) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/nmd.0000000000001149 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Lathan, A., & Dritschel, B. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0287007 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Can We Change Our Mind About Caring for Others? The Neuroscience of Systematic Compassion Training
Calderon, A., Ahern, T. H., & Pruzinsky, T. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-809837-0.00008-8 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
The mind’s abyss: Exploring the adverse effects of distinct forms of meditation
Szaszkó, B., & Tran, U. S. (2025) · Academia Mental Health and Well-Being · doi:10.20935/mhealthwellb7666 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Giordano, N. A., Duva, I., Swan, B. A., Johnson, T. M., Cimiotti, J. P., Lamis, D. A., Hillman, J., Gowgiel, J. C., Giordano, K., Rider, N. L., et al. (2025) · The Joint Commission Journal on Quality and Patient Safety · doi:10.1016/j.jcjq.2025.04.008 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationNeurobiological Factors Underlying Attachment and Trust in the Believing Process
Aguilar‐Raab, C., & Ditzen, B. (2017) · New approaches to the scientific study of religion · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-50924-2_6 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
ABCT at 50 Years: Reflections, Changes, and Future
Craighead, W. E. (2016) · Cognitive and Behavioral Practice · doi:10.1016/j.cbpra.2015.12.004 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Altruism as Reparation of Mismatch or Disruption in the Self
Harrison, A. M. (2017) · Psychoanalytic Inquiry · doi:10.1080/07351690.2017.1362922 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Goodman, R. J., Plonski, P. E., & Savery, L. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-809837-0.00009-x · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Somatic Research Bibliography: A Working Tool for Somatics and Somatic Psychology
Hanna, E. C. (2020) · International Journal of Transpersonal Studies · doi:10.24972/ijts.2020.39.1-2.179 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Silhan, M., & Garnefski, N. (2022) · Advances in Health and Behavior · doi:10.25082/ahb.2022.01.004 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Changes in peripheral oxytocin and vasopressin during a silent month-long Insight meditation retreat
Conklin, Q. A., Zanesco, A. P., King, B. G., Epel, E. S., & Saron, C. D. (2024) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2024.1345527 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Farquharson, L. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-57430-7_12
Embodied empathy and abstract concepts' concreteness: Evidence from contemplative practices
Marson, F., Paoletti, P., Naor‐Ziv, R., Carducci, F., & Ben‐Soussan, T. D. (2023) · Progress in brain research · doi:10.1016/bs.pbr.2022.12.005 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Arrato, N. A., Soo, M. S., Wren, A. A., Stalls, J. M., Bovbjerg, D. H., Keefe, F. J., & Shelby, R. A. (2025) · Breast Cancer Research and Treatment · doi:10.1007/s10549-025-07721-7 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Artificial Kindness The Italian Case of Google Mini Recognition Patterns
Papapicco, C. (2021) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-68780-9_54
Compassion vs. empathy. Necessary distinctions in approaching medical care
Mihalache, A., & Zăgrean, L. (2021) · Romanian Medical Journal · doi:10.37897/rmj.2021.3.5
Yoga and Meditation in the Treatment of Neurological and Psychiatric Disorders
Dastidar, D. G., Bhattacharjee, P., Das, P., Jana, B., & Bhunia, A. (2023) · Current Traditional Medicine · doi:10.2174/0122150838246321231003015837
Dutta, T., & Bandyopadhyay, A. (2024) · Studies in Rhythm Engineering · doi:10.1007/978-981-99-9334-5_9
Adaptasi Alat Ukur Psikometri Lovingkindness Compassion versi Bahasa Indonesia
Kusnanda, F. T., Khairunnisa, L., Linnas, N. H., Ainun, R. A. N., Agestianti, R., Ihsan, H., Wyandini, D. Z., & Mukminin, G. U. (2024) · Humanitas (Jurnal Psikologi) · doi:10.28932/humanitas.v8i1.7997
宋, 雨. (2024) · Advances in Psychology · doi:10.12677/ap.2024.147465
Fernandes, N. E., & Rustomfram, N. (2025) · Archive for the Psychology of Religion · doi:10.1177/00846724251329367
van Weert, E., Vuyst, H.-J. D., der Gucht, K. V., Debbaut, E., Steyaert, J. G., & Alaerts, K. (2025) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-025-07077-8
How important are meditation and spirituality in Reiki practice?
Baldwin, A. L., McLelland, V., Cross, D., & Braveman, N. (2025) · Complementary Therapies in Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ctim.2025.103246 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Christov‐Moore, L., Schoeller, F., von Guttenberg, M., Durinski, T., Walder, M., Jain, F. A., Iacoboni, M., & Reggente, N. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1589132
- Authors
- Mascaro, J. S., Darcher, A., Negi, L. T., & Raison, C. L.
- Affiliations
- Emory University (US)
- University of Arizona (US)
- Corresponding author
- Mascaro, Jennifer S.
- Venue
- Frontiers in Psychology
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2015-02-12
- Volume
- 6
- Pages
- 109-109
- ISSN
- 1664-1078 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4325657
- OpenAlex
- W1985069782
- Cited by
- 58
- References
- 127
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 2
- FWCI
- 9.52
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Frontiers in Psychology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Action Observation and Synchronization
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
- Keywords
- compassion meditation, loving-kindness meditation, neural mechanisms, social cognition, perspective taking, emotion regulation, self-other distinction, prosocial emotions, contemplative practice, theoretical model
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
