Deliver us from Evil: The Effects of Mortality Salience and Reminders of 9/11 on Support for President George W. Bush

May combine two claims.

Exam salient control participants were on the disagreement side of the scale, whereas MS and 9/11 salient participants were on the agreement side of the scale.

“As in Study 1, exam salient control participants were on the disagreement side of the scale, whereas MS and 9/11salient participants were on the agreement side of the scale; there was also a large effect size, η 2 = .55.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Participants gave higher ratings of John Kerry than George Bush overall.

“and higher ratings of John Kerry ( M = 4.67) than George Bush ( M = 3.83).”

May combine two claims.

In Study 1, there was no main effect or interaction for gender on support for the president (ps > .2).

“There was no main effect or interaction for gender, p s > .2.”

May combine two claims.

Study 3 showed that reminders of both mortality and 9/11 increased support for Bush.

“Study 3 showed that reminders of both mortality and 9/11 increased support for Bush.”

May combine two claims.

In Study 1, there were no significant differences on PANAS-X affect subscales or aggregate positive and negative affect scales between MS and control conditions.

“Consistent with previous TMT research demonstrating that MS does not engender affect, there were no significant differences found for these analyses.”

May combine two claims.

The regression showed main effects for condition and political orientation, indicating higher approval in the MS and 9/11 conditions and the more conservative the participants were.

“We observed the expected main effects for condition and political orientation, indicating higher approval in the MS and 9/11 conditions and the more conservative the participants were.”

May combine two claims.

In Study 1, analyses on individual items revealed significant effects on all three items, all ps < .01, with MS increasing approval of Bush and his policies on each item.

“Analyses conducted on the individual items making up our composite measure revealed significant effects on all three items, all p s < .01, with MS increasing approval of Bush and his policies on each item.”

May combine two claims.

Study 4 found that mortality salience led participants to become more favorable toward Bush and voting for him in the upcoming election but less favorable toward Presidential candidate John Kerry and voting for him.

“In Study 4, mortality salience led participants to become more favorable toward Bush and voting for him in the upcoming election but less favorable toward Presidential candidate John Kerry and voting for him.”

May combine two claims.

In Study 4, Kerry was preferred over Bush in the control condition, but mortality-salient participants preferred Bush over Kerry.

“In addition, Study 4 revealed that whereas Kerry was preferred over Bush in the control condition, mortality salient participants preferred Bush over Kerry.”

May combine two claims.

The increased appeal of President Bush in response to reminders of death or the events of 9/11 was not limited to conservative individuals and was not the result of an increase in political conservatism.

“The political orientation measure in Studies 3 and 4 suggests that the increased appeal of President Bush in response to reminders of death or the events of 9/11 was not at all limited to conservative individuals and was not the result of an increase in political conservatism.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The one-item political orientation measure is face valid.

May combine two claims.

There was no effect of MS or pain prime on political orientation.

“A 2 (MS vs. pain) × 2 (Bush vs. Kerry) × 2 (gender) ANOVA revealed no effects on political orientation”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Conscious contemplation of mortality first arouses proximal defenses involving suppression of death-related thoughts or denying vulnerability.

“This model posits that conscious contemplation of mortality first arouses direct threat-focused proximal defenses involving suppression of death-related thoughts or pushing the problem of deathinto the distant future by denying one's vulnerability to various risk factors (e.g., promising to get more exercise).”

• cites Pyszczynski et al. (1999)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

TMT posits that popular support for leaders is partly the result of the need to allay a deeply rooted fear of death.

“TMT posits that popular support for leaders is partly the result of the need to allay a deeply rooted fear of death.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Once death-related thought is no longer in consciousness, distal symbolic terror management defenses are activated.

“Once death-related thought is no longer in consciousness, distal symbolic terror management defenses, which serve to bolster faith in the meaningful worldview and one's sense of self-worth, are activated to manage the potential for anxiety engendered by heightened accessibility of implicit death-related thought.”

• cites Pyszczynski et al. (1999)Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The mortality salience hypothesis states that if the cultural worldview functions to provide protection against death-related concerns, then reminders of death should intensify efforts to bolster and defend faith in the worldview.

“The most prominent line of empirical support for TMT comes from tests of the mortality salience (MS) hypothesis, which states that if the cultural worldview functions to provide protection against death-related concerns, then reminders of death should intensify efforts to bolster and defend faith in the worldview.”

• cites Greenberg, Solomon, & Pyszczynski, 1997Not checked yet

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• cites Solomon, Greenberg, & Pyszczynski, in pressNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

TMT posits that terror management defenses are ultimately concerned with implicit knowledge of death rather than consciously experienced terror per se.

“TMTposits that terror management defenses are ultimately concerned with the implicit knowledge of death rather than with consciously experienced terror per se (see Greenberg et al., 2003).”

• cites Greenberg et al., 2003Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

According to TMT, people are motivated to conceive of themselves as valued participants in a cosmically significant cultural scheme rather than physical creatures subject to decay and death.

“According to TMT, people are motivated to conceive of themselves as valued participants in a cosmically significant cultural scheme rather than physical creatures subject to decay and death.”

May combine two claims.

MS effects are not produced by heightened self-awareness, salience of cultural values, meaninglessness, or high cognitive load.

“Research also has shown that effects parallel to MS are not produced by heightened self-awareness, the salience of cultural values, meaninglessness, or high cognitive load (e.g., Greenberg et al., 1995).”

• cites Greenberg et al., 1995Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Cohen et al. (in press) found that reminders of mortality increase support for charismatic leaders in a hypothetical election scenario.

“Initial empirical support for this point was provided by Cohen, Solomon, Maxfield, Pyszczynski, and Greenberg's (in press) finding that reminders of mortality increase support for charismatic leaders in a hypothetical election scenario.”

• cites Cohen, Solomon, Maxfield, Pyszczynski, and Greenberg's (in press)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

After distal defenses are employed, death-thought accessibility dissipates back to baseline.

“Once these defenses have been employed, deaththought accessibility dissipates back to baseline level.”

• cites Pyszczynski et al. (1999)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Terror management theory posits that one of the most basic functions leaders serve is helping people manage a deeply rooted fear of death inherent in the human condition.

“Terror management theory (TMT) (Greenberg, Pyszczynski, & Solomon, 1986; Solomon, Greenberg, & Pyszczynski, 1991) posits that one of the most basic functions that leaders serve is that of helping people manage a deeply rooted fear of death that is inherent in the human condition.”

• cites Greenberg, Pyszczynski, & Solomon, 1986Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Solomon, Greenberg, & Pyszczynski, 1991Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Many symbolic defenses in response to 9/11 represent efforts to reaffirm the integrity and absolute validity of the American worldview in response to increased accessibility of implicit death-related thoughts.

“From this perspective, many symbolic defenses in response to 9/11 represent efforts to reaffirm the integrity and absolute validity of the American worldview in response to increased accessibility of implicit death-related thoughts (see also Miller & Landau, in press).”

• cites Miller & Landau, in pressNot checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

From the TMT perspective, President Bush's appeal may lie in his image as a protective shield against death, armed with high-tech weaponry, patriotic rhetoric, and the resolute invocation of doing God's will to 'rid the world of evil'.

“From this perspective, President Bush's appeal may lie in his image as a protective shield against death, armed with high-tech weaponry, patriotic rhetoric, and the resolute invocation of doing God's will to 'rid the world of evil' (Purdum, 2001, p. 2; see also Carney & Dickerson, 2001).”

• cites Purdum, 2001Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Carney & Dickerson, 2001Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Increases in death-thought accessibility have been shown to follow explicit reminders of one's physical nature, salient threats to a close relationship, and confrontations with events that violate the belief in a just world.

“For example, increases in death-thought accessibility have been shown to follow explicit reminders of one's physical nature (Goldenberg, Cox, Pyszczynski, Greenberg, & Solomon, 2002), salient threats to a close relationship (Mikulincer, Florian, & Hirschberger, 2003), and confrontations with events that violate the belief in a just world (Landau et al., in press).”

• cites Goldenberg, Cox, Pyszczynski, Greenberg, & Solomon, 2002Not checked yet

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• cites Mikulincer, Florian, & Hirschberger, 2003Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Landau et al., in pressNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

We know of no direct experimental evidence that terrorism-related events parallel the effect of MS primes in increasing death-thought accessibility or that 9/11-related thoughts play a role in increased attraction to a leader.

“However, we know of no direct experimental evidence that terrorism-related events parallel the effect of MS primes in increasing death-thought accessibility or that 9/11-related thoughts play a role in increased attraction to a leader.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Threats to terror management defenses increase death-thought accessibility, whereas strengthening those defenses tends to reduce it.

“Other research has found that threats to terror management defenses increase death-thought accessibility, whereas strengthening those defenses tends to reduce it (Arndt, Greenberg, Solomon, Pyszczynski, & Simon, 1997).”

• cites Arndt, Greenberg, Solomon, Pyszczynski, & Simon, 1997Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Becker proposed that over socialization, primary sources of psychological security shift from parents to culture and its figures of power, authority, and righteousness.

“Becker (1971, 1973, 1975) proposed that over the course of socialization, the primary sources of psychological security, those entities that sustain the sense of life as meaningful and one's self as significant, shift from one's parents to the culture and its figures of power, authority, and righteousness.”

• cites Becker, 1971, 1973, 1975Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The MS and 9/11 inductions enhanced affection for President Bush without altering political orientation per se.

“suggesting that these inductions enhanced affection for President Bush without altering political orientation per se.”

May combine two claims.

Arndt, Greenberg, and Cook (2002) found that subliminal death primes (and explicit MS treatments after a delay) can increase the accessibility of nationalistic cognitions.

“Finally, Arndt, Greenberg, and Cook (2002) found that subliminal death primes (and explicit MS treatments after a delay) can increase the accessibility of nationalistic cognitions.”

• cites Arndt, Greenberg, and Cook (2002)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

President Bush represents a protective authority capable of assuaging existential concerns through his charismatic leadership style.

“We have proposed that through his charismatic leadership style, President Bush represents a protective authority capable of assuaging existential concerns.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Cohen et al. (in press) demonstrated that MS enhanced the appeal of a charismatic leader who promotes a grand vision and promises citizens a significant role in a noble mission in a hypothetical election scenario.

“Ofmostdirect relevance for present purposes, Cohen et al. (in press) recently demonstrated that MS enhanced the appeal of a charismatic leader who promotes a grand vision and promises citizens a significant role in a noble mission in a hypothetical election sce-”

• cites Cohen et al. (in press)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

In concert, these threats should encourage bolstering of Americans' faith in the symbolic structures that constitute the dominant cultural worldview.

“In concert, these threats should encourage bolstering of Americans' faith in the symbolic structures that constitute the dominant cultural worldview.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Investing faith in the leader of that scheme to assure symbolic prosperity facilitates the maintenance of this buffer.

“Investing faith in the leader of that scheme to assure symbolic prosperity facilitates the maintenance of this buffer.”

May combine two claims.

The results support the hypothesis that MS and a reminder of 9/11 would both increase the appeal of President Bush regardless of political orientation.

“These results support the hypotheses that MS and a reminder of 9/11 would both increase the appeal of President Bush regardless of political orientation.”

May combine two claims.

Both MS and 9/11 significantly increased the appeal of President Bush for conservative and liberal participants.

“but it is important to keep in mind that both MS and 9/11 significantly increased the appeal of President Bush for our conservative and liberal participants.”

May combine two claims.

Subliminal death stimuli led to an immediate increase in worldview defense, whereas supraliminal death stimuli produce increased death accessibility and worldview defense only after a delay and distraction.

“Furthermore, subliminal death stimuli led to an immediate increase in worldview defense (increased preference for a pro-American essay and its author as opposed to an anti-American author), whereas previous research has shown that supraliminal death stimuli produce increased death accessibility and worldview defense only after a delay and distraction.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

One hundred and fifty-seven students at Brooklyn College were randomly assigned to conditions in a 2 (mortality salient vs. intense pain salient control) × 2 (evaluate George W. Bush vs. evaluate John Kerry) design.

“One hundred and fifty-seven students at Brooklyn College (95 women, 62 men) were randomly assigned to conditions in a 2 (mortality salient vs. intense pain salient control) × 2 (evaluate George W. Bush vs. evaluate John Kerry) design.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Participants were randomly assigned to an MS, exam salience, or terrorism prime condition.

“participants were randomly assigned to an MS, exam salience, or terrorism prime condition.”

May combine two claims.

MS increased approval of Bush similarly for liberals and conservatives, but the terrorism prime had a stronger effect on liberals, such that political orientation was a negligible predictor in that condition and significantly less predictive than in the exam control condition.

“These results in conjunction with Figure 2 suggest that MS increased approval of Bush similarly for liberals and conservatives but that the terrorism prime had a stronger effect on liberals, such that in that condition, political orientation was a negligible predictor, and significantly less predictive of approval of Bush than it was in the exam control condition.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Pyszczynski et al. proposed that symbolic responses to 9/11 are the product of a potent double-barreled threat: vivid and unceasing depictions of death and destruction compounded by a massive threat to America's sense of military and financial power and moral righteousness.

“Based on these affinities, Pyszczynski et al. proposed that symbolic responses to 9/11 are the product of a potent doublebarreled threat posed by the events: vivid and unceasing depictions of death and destruction compounded by a massive threat to America's sense of military and financial power and moral righteousness.”

• cites Pyszczynski et al. (2003)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Becker viewed secular leaders as assuming the role of 'death-dealer and death-defier'-the embodiments of invulnerability and symbolic supremacy.

“Becker (1975) viewed secular leaders as representing not only rational, objective policy makers but, similar to their religious counterparts, assuming the role of 'death-dealer and death-defier' (p. 42)-the embodiments of invulnerability and symbolic supremacy”

• cites Becker, 1975Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Pyszczynski et al. (2003) portrayed the events of 9/11 as a 'natural' MS induction and discussed how many symbolic defenses prompted by 9/11 paralleled those found in response to MS inductions.

“In this vein, Pyszczynski et al. (2003) recently portrayed the events of 9/11 as a 'natural' MS induction and discussed how many of the symbolic defenses prompted by 9/11 (e.g., veneration for culturally sacred objects, such as flags) paralleled those found in response to MS inductions used in terror management research.”

• cites Pyszczynski et al. (2003)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

The appeal of the leader lies in his or her perceived ability to both literally and symbolically deliver the people from illness, calamity, chaos, and death as well as to demonstrate the supremacy of the worldview.

“The appeal of the leader lies in his or her perceived ability to both literally and symbolically deliver the people from illness, calamity, chaos, and death as well as to demonstrate the supremacy of the worldview.”

The quote only partly states this claim.

The primary analyses remained statistically unaffected when attentiveness, sadness, and positive affect were entered as covariates.

“The results of the primary analyses remainedstatistically unaffected.”

May combine two claims.

The MS induction influenced evaluations of Bush and Kerry without altering political orientation per se.

“suggesting that the MS induction influenced evaluations of Bush and Kerry without altering political orientation per se.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

President Bush's status as president makes him the person most representative of the United States at the current time.

“One is his status as the president of the country. This position makes him the person most representative of the United States at the current time.”

May combine two claims.

President Bush has certain elements of a charismatic style: he appears highly self-confident and certain of his views, appeals to patriotism, and emphasizes the positive qualities of America and being American and the central role of the United States in triumphing over evil and defending freedom.

“Second, President Bush has certain elements of a charismatic style: He appears highly self-confident and certain of his views (Feldmann, 2004), appeals to patriotism, and emphasizes the positive qualities of America and being American and the central role of the United States in triumphing over evil and defending freedom.”

• cites Feldmann, 2004Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The fact that MS decreased the appeal of Kerry in Study 4 suggests that there is something specific about President George W. Bush that makes him especially useful for terror management purposes.

“The fact that MS decreased the appeal of Kerry in Study 4 suggests that there is something specific about President George W. Bush that makes him especially useful for terror management purposes.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The use of straightforward approval questions rather than agreement with an elaborate message provides direct evidence of the effect of MS on favorability of President Bush.

“Beyond comparing Bush to Kerry, the use of straightforward approval questions rather than agreement with an elaborate message provides direct evidence of the effect of MS on favorability of President Bush.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Cohen et al. (in press) found that MS increases preference for a hypothetical candidate who embodies precisely this charismatic style.

“Cohen et al. (in press) found that MS increases preference for a hypothetical candidate who embodies precisely this style”

• cites Cohen et al. (in press)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Facing or anticipating a common enemy or threat can activate superordinate identities and increase ingroup solidarity.

“research both in (Gaertner &amp; Dovidio, 2000) and outside the laboratory (Piliavin, Rodin, &amp; Piliavin, 1969; Sherif, 1966; Sherif, Harvey, White, Hood, &amp; Sherif, 1961) has shown that facing or even anticipating (Darley &amp; Morris, 1975) a common enemy or threat can activate superordinate identities and increase ingroup solidarity.”

• cites Gaertner & Dovidio, 2000Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Piliavin, Rodin, & Piliavin, 1969Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Sherif, 1966Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The fact that reminders of death and the events of 9/11 enhanced support for President Bush in the present studies may not bode well for the philosophical democratic ideal that political preferences are the result of rational choice based on an informed understanding of the relevant issues.

“The fact that reminders of death and the events of 9/11 enhanced support for President Bush in the present studies may not bode well for the philosophical democratic ideal that political preferences are the result of rational choice based on an informed understanding of the relevant issues.”

May combine two claims.

MS intensified support for President Bush and reduced support for Kerry regardless of political orientation.

“These results indicate that MS intensified support for President Bush and reduced support for Kerry regardless of political orientation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The PANAS-X item error in Study 2 was rectified for Studies 3 and 4 with the same results as obtained in Study 2.

“This was rectified for Studies 3 and 4 with the same results as obtained in this study.”

May combine two claims.

If MS increases pro-U.S. sentiment in Americans, positive responses toward the president are also likely to be increased.

“If MS increases pro-U.S. sentiment in Americans, as a considerable body of evidence indicates, positive responses toward the president also are likely to be increased.”

May combine two claims.

The present research provides clear support for the TMT analysis that reminders of death and 9/11 increase support for President Bush and that subtle 9/11 reminders increase death-thought accessibility.

“By showing that reminders of both death and the 9/11 terrorist attacks increase support for President Bush and that even very subtle reminders of 9/11 increase the accessibility of death-related thoughts, the present research provides clear support for this TMT analysis.”

May combine two claims.

The present findings support the view that political allegiances are not always based on balanced, rational self-interest but also on nonrational forces of which we are not always aware.

“The present findings support the views of many theorists (e.g., Becker; Freud, 1921/1965; Fromm, 1941; Lifton, 1968; Lipman-Bluemen, 1996; Weber) and researchers (Bord, 1975; Ehrhart &amp; Klein, 2001; Kirkpatrick &amp; Locke, 1996; Pillai, 1996) who have noted that political allegiances are not always based on the balanced, rational forces of self-interest suggested by the Jeffersonian notion of”

May combine two claims.

In Cohen et al. (in press), the descriptions of the hypothetical candidates did not imply anything about their political orientation, making it unlikely that the MS-induced increase in preference for the charismatic candidate reflected a conservative shift.

“In addition, in Cohen et al. (in press), the descriptions of the hypothetical candidates did not imply anything about their political orientation, making it unlikely that the MS-induced increase in preference for the charismatic candidate reflected a conservative shift.”

• cites Cohen et al. (in press)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

MS does not heighten affection for anyone associated with U.S. leadership, but for George W. Bush in particular.

“These results suggest that MS does not heighten affection for anyone associated with U.S. leadership, but Bush in particular.”

May combine two claims.

In Studies 1 and 3, the common enemy theme was prominent in all conditions because all participants were exposed to a paragraph that made explicit mention of 9/11 and future terrorist threats.

“Second, all participants in Studies 1 and 3 were exposed to a paragraph that made explicit mention of 9/11 and future terrorist threats, so the common enemy theme was prominent in all conditions of bothstudies, yet MS participants showed the highest support for Bush.”