Affective dynamics in psychopathology
Open accessAbstract
We discuss three varieties of affective dynamics ( affective instability, emotional inertia, and emotional differentiation). In each case, we suggest how these affective dynamics should be operationalized and measured in daily life using time-intensive methods, like ecological momentary assessment or ambulatory assessment, and recommend time-sensitive analyses that take into account not only the variability but also the temporal dependency of reports. Studies that explore how these affective dynamics are associated with psychological disorders and symptoms are reviewed, and we emphasize that these affective processes are within a nexus of other components of emotion regulation.
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review argues that affective instability, emotional inertia, and emotional differentiation are dynamic processes best captured with time-intensive assessment (e.g., EMA/ambulatory assessment) and time-sensitive analyses rather than retrospective or variance-only indices. It links these dynamics to psychopathology, especially borderline personality disorder and depression, and recommends decomposing variability from temporal dependency.
Key findings
- Affective instability should combine variability and temporal dependency; a standard deviation alone is not time-sensitive. BPD consistently shows heightened instability, and Santangelo et al. (2014) found PTSD and bulimia nervosa patients showed similarly heightened instability of emotional valence and distress as BPD patients; instability is more extreme in BPD than MDD, with BPD showing higher variability and MDD showing higher temporal dependency.
- Emotional inertia, estimated as within-person autocorrelation of affect, is linked to depression vulnerability markers including neuroticism, low self-esteem, trait rumination, subclinical depressive symptoms, and the 5-HTTLPR polymorphism. Kuppens et al. (2012) found heightened inertia prospectively predicted MDD onset among adolescents even after adjusting for mean negative affect and gender, suggesting inertia may be an “early warning signal.”
- Emotional differentiation findings are mixed by disorder and valence: MDD showed lower negative emotion differentiation than controls but no positive differentiation difference; schizophrenia showed lower overall emotion differentiation but not for negative emotion; BPD showed less negative emotional differentiation than controls. Tomko et al. (in press) found greater momentary and average daily differentiation predicted lower momentary impulsivity, whereas a global 28-day measure of negative differentiation did not.
- The review concludes that affective dynamics are intraindividual and time-sensitive, should be assessed at momentary, daily, or weekly levels, and should not extend beyond daily levels unless testing periodicity hypotheses; it also notes that RDoC-style classifications often ignore dynamic emotional processes.
Methods
- Narrative review of three affective dynamics: affective instability, emotional inertia, and emotional differentiation. No primary sample or original data are reported.
- Synthesizes prior studies using ecological momentary assessment, ambulatory assessment, daily diaries, and laboratory methods, with emphasis on repeated momentary affect assessments.
- Main analysis is conceptual and methodological synthesis, recommending time-sensitive indices such as multilevel models of squared successive differences, probability of acute changes, multilevel autoregressive models, and intraclass correlations for differentiation; no systematic search or meta-analysis is described.
Limitations
- Stated in the paper: retrospective questionnaires and classical statistical indices are not well suited to within-person processes and introduce bias; standard deviation/variance is not time-sensitive; sampling frequency and timescale must match the process; average interitem correlations are less desirable than between-person ICCs; differentiation estimates confound systematic variability from time of day, day of week, and emotion-evoking events and ignore temporal dependencies; whether emotional inertia remains elevated during a current MDD episode remains unclear.
- Stated in the paper: Santangelo et al. (2014) argue that events/triggers of emotional episodes, appraisals/metacognitions, and subcomponents of dynamic processes are understudied.
- Evident from the text: this is a narrative review without a systematic search strategy or meta-analysis, reports no primary numerical effect sizes, and explicitly excludes other affective dynamics such as variability from its main focus.
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Claims the paper makes
0 of 41 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Premisecitation
Studies using e-diaries and time-sensitive statistics have consistently found heightened affective instability in patients with BPD.
“Studies of affective instability using e-diaries and time-sensitive statistics have consistently found heightened affective instability in patients with BPD (Ebner-Priemer et al., 2007; Santangelo, Bohus, & Ebner-Priemer, 2012; Santangelo et al., 2014; Trull et al., 2008).”
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- cites Santangelo et al., 2014
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- cites Trull et al., 2008
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- Premisecitation
BPD patients show higher levels of variability than individuals with MDD.
“Regarding the first subcomponent, BPD patients show higher levels of variability than individuals with MDD (Trull et al., 2008), perhaps reflecting greater reactivity to external events.”
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- Interpretationcitation
Because temporal dependency is inversely related to instability, greater temporal dependency may contribute to relatively lower levels of instability observed among MDD versus BPD patients.
“Because temporal dependency is inversely related to instability (Jahng et al., 2008), greater temporal dependency may contribute to relatively lower levels of instability observed among MDD versus BPD patients.”
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- Interpretationcitation
Differences in affective instability may be driven primarily by one of its subcomponents (variability or temporal dependency).
“Therefore, it is important to distinguish between variability and temporal dependency because differences in affective instability may be driven primarily by one of these subcomponents (Koval et al., 2013; Wang, Hamaker, & Bergeman, 2012).”
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- cites Wang, Hamaker, & Bergeman, 2012
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- Premisecitation
BPD is the only disorder for which affective instability is a specific diagnostic criterion.
“Although a number of other mood and anxiety disorders are conceptualized as disorders of distress or emotion dysregulation, BPD is the only disorder for which affective instability is a specific diagnostic criterion (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013).”
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- Premisecitation
A standard deviation is not time-sensitive because it does not account for moment-to-moment changes in affect.
“A standard deviation is not time-sensitive because it does not account for moment-to-moment changes in affect (Ebner-Priemer, Eid, Kleindienst, Stabenow, & Trull, 2009; Ebner-Priemer et al., 2007).”
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- cites Ebner-Priemer et al., 2007
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- Premisecitation
Heightened inertia prospectively predicted the development of MDD among adolescents even after adjusting for several known depression risk factors, including mean levels of NA and gender.
“In fact, Kuppens et al. (2012) found that heightened inertia prospectively predicted the development of MDD among adolescents even after adjusting for several known depression risk factors, including mean levels of NA and gender.”
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- Interpretationreasoning
Greater variability in BPD patients may partly account for the greater affective instability associated with BPD.
“This may (partly) account for the greater affective instability associated with BPD.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
A number of studies have linked heightened inertia, particularly of negative affect, with indicators of increased vulnerability to depression, such as neuroticism, low self-esteem, trait rumination, subclinical depressive symptoms, and the 5-HTTLPR polymorphism.
“A number of studies have linked heightened inertia, particularly of negative affect (NA), with indicators of increased vulnerability to depression, such as neuroticism (Suls et al., 1998), low self-esteem (Kuppens, Allen, et al., 2010), trait rumination (Koval, Kuppens, Allen, & Sheeber, 2012), subclinical depressive symptoms (Brose, Schmiedek, Koval, & Kuppens, 2015; Koval et al., 2013), and the”
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- cites Kuppens, Allen, et al., 2010
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- cites Koval, Kuppens, Allen, & Sheeber, 2012
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- Premisecitation
Sophisticated theoretical and statistical models have been developed that make these subcomponents accessible to research.
“Sophisticated theoretical and statistical models have been developed, which make these subcomponents accessible to research (Kuppens, Oravecz, & Tuerlinckx, 2010).”
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- Premisecitation
Several theoretical models of affective dysregulation specify distinct subcomponents, like sensitivity to emotional stimuli, responses to emotional stimuli, and return to baseline.
“Several theoretical models of affective dysregulation specify distinct subcomponents, like Linehan’s (1993) biosocial theory (including sensitivity to emotional stimuli, responses to emotional stimuli, and return to baseline).”
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- Interpretationcitation
Greater temporal dependency of affect can be considered to reflect affective inflexibility or resistance to change.
“Given that an important function of affect is to change in response to fluctuating environmental demands (Kashdan & Rottenberg, 2010), greater temporal dependency of affect can be considered to reflect affective inflexibility or resistance to change (Hollenstein, 2015).”
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- cites Hollenstein, 2015
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- Interpretationreasoning
Events and triggers of emotional episodes are likely to differ between disorders.
“However, they are likely to differ between disorders.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Associations between prospectively monitored affective changes and retrospective ratings of these changes are usually weak.
“It is perhaps not surprising that associations between prospectively monitored affective changes and retrospective ratings of these changes are usually weak (Links, Heisel, & Garland, 2003; Solhan, Trull, Jahng, & Wood, 2009).”
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- cites Solhan, Trull, Jahng, & Wood, 2009
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- Premisecitation
A direct link between emotional inertia and future onset of MDD has been demonstrated.
“A direct link between emotional inertia and future onset of MDD has also been demonstrated (Kuppens et al., 2012; van de Leemput et al., 2014).”
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- cites van de Leemput et al., 2014
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- Premisecitation
Patients with posttraumatic stress disorder and patients with bulimia nervosa showed similarly heightened instability of affect (emotional valence and distress) as patients with BPD.
“Surprisingly, patients with posttraumatic stress disorder and patients with bulimia nervosa showed similarly heightened instability of affect (emotional valence and distress) as patients with BPD.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Santangelo et al., 2014
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- Interpretationreasoning
Polarized emotional experience maps onto a number of constructs related to psychopathology, including cognitive biases like all-or-none thinking, splitting, affective instability, poor social functioning, impulsive behaviors, and substance use.
“Such polarized experience maps onto a number of constructs related to psychopathology, including cognitive biases like all-or-none thinking, splitting, affective instability, poor social functioning, impulsive behaviors, and substance use, as we discuss next.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Emotion differentiation is considered an essential component of the emotion regulation process.
“Emotion differentiation is considered an essential component of the emotion regulation process for several reasons (Carpenter & Trull, 2013).”
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- Interpretationcitation
A measure of emotional differentiation at the level of momentary experience more closely operationalizes the process as originally theorized than treating it as a stable between-person characteristic or trait.
“Furthermore, a measure of emotional differentiation at the level of momentary experience more closely operationalizes the process as it was originally theorized (see Barrett et al., 2001), as opposed to treating it as a stable between-person characteristic or trait.”
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- Interpretationreasoning
To the degree that one can reliably differentiate among emotions as they are experienced, it is less likely that emotional experience will be labeled globally (all bad/negative; all good/positive).
“Second, to the degree that one can reliably differentiate among emotions as they are experienced, it is less likely that emotional experience will be labeled globally (all bad/negative; all good/positive).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
These methods do not treat time-intensive data in a way that appreciates the temporal dependencies that are part of it.
“These methods do not treat the time-intensive data in a way that appreciates the temporal dependencies that are a part of it.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Emotional clarity and emotional differentiation, studied in real life using EMA, are at best only weakly related.
“Interestingly, evidence suggests that emotional clarity and emotional differentiation, studied in real life using EMA, are at best only weakly related (Boden et al., 2013).”
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- Premisecitation
Affective dynamics play an important but not exclusive role in the process of emotion (dys)regulation.
“Third, as one is focusing on affective dynamics, it is important to recognize that these also play an important but not exclusive role in the process of emotion (dys)regulation (Carpenter & Trull, 2013).”
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- Interpretationnone given
Almost all investigations of emotional differentiation, regardless of methodology, have created aggregate (global) measures and drawn inferences about more dynamic, in-the-moment experiences.
“To date, almost all investigations, regardless of their methodology, have created aggregate (i.e., global) measures of differentiation and subsequently drawn inferences about more dynamic, in-the-moment experiences.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given
In both average interitem correlation and between-person ICC methods, differentiation estimates confound systematic variability across different affective items with other systematic variability from other sources, such as time of day, day of week, and other emotion-evoking events not part of the theoretical composition of emotional differentiation.
“In both cases differentiation estimates confound systematic variability across different affective items with other systematic variability from other sources, such as time of day, day of week, and other emotion-evoking events that are not part of the theoretical composition of emotional differentiation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
Efforts to develop new classifications of psychopathology based on dimensions of observable behavior and neurobiological measures (e.g., RDoC) often ignore the fact that human emotions and behavior are dynamic processes that unfold over time in everyday life, and therefore may miss a fundamental aspect of psychopathology.
“Unfortunately, efforts to develop new classifications of psychopathology based on dimensions of observable behavior and neurobiological measures (e.g., the NIH initiative RDoC; Cuthbert & Insel, 2013), often ignore the fact that human emotions and behavior are dynamic processes that unfold over time in everyday life, and therefore may miss a fundamental aspect of psychopathology.”
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- Rests on an assumption: Human emotions and behavior are dynamic processes that unfold over time in everyday life.
- Interpretationcitation
Heightened temporal dependency or inertia of negative affect appears to represent an "early warning signal" of an imminent transition into MDD.
“Nevertheless, heightened temporal dependency or inertia of NA appears to represent an “early warning signal” of an imminent transition into MDD (van de Leemput et al., 2014).”
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- May combine two claims. 12
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 7
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InterpretationreasoningTraditional assessment methods (e.g., retrospective questionnaires) and classical statistical indices (e.g., group means) are not well suited for fully capturing within-person processes over time and introduce biases into measurement.
“However, both traditional assessment methods (e.g. retrospective questionnaires) and classical statistical indices (e.g., group means) are (a) not well suited for fully capturing within-person processes over time and (b) introduce biases into measurement.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationAlthough BPD and MDD patients both display heightened affective instability relative to controls, instability is more extreme in BPD than MDD.
“Although BPD and MDD patients both display heightened affective instability relative to controls, instability is more extreme in BPD than MDD (Trull et al., 2008).”
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PremisecitationDepression is characterized by heightened temporal dependency of affect (i.e., a high autocorrelation), whereas this is not typical for BPD.
“Whereas depression is characterized by heightened temporal dependency of affect (i.e., a high autocorrelation), this is not typical for BPD (Houben, van den Noortgate, & Kuppens, in press).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Houben, van den Noortgate, & Kuppens, in press
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PremisecitationHeightened affective instability has been reported in patients with anxiety disorders, bipolar disorder, bulimia nervosa, major depression, and posttraumatic stress disorder.
“For instance, heightened instability has been reported in patients with anxiety disorders (Pfaltz, Michael, Grossman, Margraf, & Wilhelm, 2010), bipolar disorder (Jones, Hare, & Evershed, 2005), bulimia nervosa (Anestis et al., 2010; Selby et al., 2012; Vansteelandt, Probst, & Pieters, 2013), major depression (MDD; Thompson et al., 2012), and posttraumatic stress disorder (Kashdan, Uswatte, Steger”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Pfaltz, Michael, Grossman, Margraf, & Wilhelm, 2010
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- cites Jones, Hare, & Evershed, 2005
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- cites Anestis et al., 2010
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PremisecitationDynamic affective processes have historically been neglected in psychopathology research and in behavioral science more generally.
“Unfortunately, dynamic affective processes have historically been neglected in psychopathology research (Ebner-Priemer & Trull, 2011), and in behavioral science more generally (Molenaar & Campbell, 2009).”
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- cites Molenaar & Campbell, 2009
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Interpretationnone givenThis review reveals consistent relations between affective instability and a wide range of disorders, between emotion inertia and poorer functioning (primarily increased vulnerability to depression), and between negative emotional (un)differentiation and disorders and features of emotional dysregulation and distress.
“This review of affective dynamics and psychopathology reveals consistent relations between affective instability and a wide range of disorders, between emotion inertia and poorer functioning (primarily increased vulnerability to depression), and between negative emotional (un)differentiation and disorders and features of emotional dysregulation and distress.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationWhen differentiation as a stable individual difference is of interest, measures designed specifically for that purpose are available.
“When differentiation as a stable individual difference is of interest (e.g., group differences in personality/traits) measures designed specifically for that purpose are available (Kang & Shaver, 2004).”
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Interpretationnone givenThe method used to operationalize emotional differentiation depends crucially on the research question.
“The method used to operationalize emotional differentiation depends crucially on the research question.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationReliably and accurately identifying one's emotions is important because effective emotion regulation relies on selecting a strategy that is appropriate for the specific emotion one is currently experiencing.
“First, reliably and accurately identifying one’s emotions is important because effective emotion regulation relies on selecting a strategy that is appropriate for the specific emotion one is currently experiencing (Barrett et al., 2001).”
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InterpretationreasoningAlmost all of the reviewed studies adjust for intensity of experienced affect in estimating the association between emotional differentiation and various outcomes, making it unlikely that observed differences between clinical and healthy individuals are driven solely by clinical individuals' more extreme affective experiences.
“It is worthwhile to note that almost all of the reviewed studies adjust for intensity of experienced affect in estimating the association between emotional differentiation and various outcomes, making it unlikely that observed differences between clinical and healthy individuals is driven solely by clinical individuals’ more extreme affective experiences.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationEmotional clarity is typically thought of as a stable between-person individual difference intended to be measured cross-sectionally.
“This again diverges from the concept of emotional clarity, which is typically thought of as a stable between-person individual difference that is intended to be measured cross-sectionally (Boden et al., 2013).”
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InterpretationreasoningA larger time frame is less likely to capture the ebb and flow of affect and to reveal the association with psychopathology and its features.
“A larger time frame is less likely to capture the ebb and flow of affect and to reveal the association with psychopathology and its features.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationBetween-person differentiation estimates generated from diary and EMA data may serve as useful proxies for investigations of stable individual differences, but there are substantial precision and bias limitations when using these methods.
“The between-person differentiation estimates generated from diary and EMA data, like those reviewed before, may also serve as useful proxies for such investigations, but we note that there are substantial precision and bias limitations when using these methods (Lane & Trull, in press).”
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InterpretationreasoningAverage interitem correlations are less desirable than between-person ICCs, because the former is a special case of the latter in which the assumptions rarely hold.
“Average interitem correlations are less desirable than between-person ICCs, as the prior is a special case of the latter in which the assumptions rarely hold.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenThe experience of affect is interpreted in certain, sometimes idiosyncratic ways, and the way in which one responds to this experience is influenced by one's ability to use adaptive coping strategies in the face of strong emotional experience.
“The experience of affect is also interpreted in certain, sometimes idiosyncratic ways, and the way in which one responds to this experience will also be influenced by one’s ability to use adaptive coping strategies in the face of strong emotional experience.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationTomko et al. (in press) were the first to provide a method for calculating differentiation at the level of experience and to use it to predict dynamic outcomes.
“In contrast, Tomko et al. (in press) were the first to provide a method for calculating differentiation at the level of experience and utilize it to predict dynamic outcomes.”
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InterpretationreasoningInstability, inertia, and emotional differentiation can be indexed at daily and weekly levels as well.
“Instability, inertia, and emotional differentiation can be indexed at daily and weekly levels as well.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
Most psychological disorders show some kind of altered affective experience, deficient emotion regulation, or dysfunctional behavior to regulate emotions.
“However, most psychological disorders show some kind of altered affective experience, deficient emotion regulation, or dysfunctional behavior to regulate emotions.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Events and triggers of emotional episodes are rarely assessed in psychopathology research.
“First, events and triggers of emotional episodes are rarely assessed.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Emotional experience is dynamic, not static.
“Emotional experience is dynamic, not static, and methods that provide multiple microassessments of emotional experience across time and situations can shed light on the dynamic nature of various affective processes that are theorized to be central to the development and course of psychopathology.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Optimal mental health is not simply a function of experiencing more positive than negative affect, on average.
“Optimal mental health is not simply a function of experiencing more positive than negative affect, on average.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Monitoring and analyzing dynamic processes can be challenging.
“This is not surprising because monitoring and analyzing dynamic processes can be challenging.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The appraisal of events and the metacognitions of the associated affective processes have been largely neglected in psychopathology research.
“Second, the appraisal of events and the metacognitions of the associated affective processes have been largely neglected in psychopathology research (but see Thompson et al., 2012).”
The paper relies on this without support.
Human emotions and behavior are dynamic processes that unfold over time in everyday life.
“human emotions and behavior are dynamic processes that unfold over time in everyday life”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
EMA is an especially suitable method for assessing symptoms that are dynamic in nature, such as affective instability.
“EMA is an especially suitable method for assessing symptoms that are dynamic in nature (such as affective instability) (6, 23)”
From Don't Miss the Moment: A Systematic Review of Ecological Momentary Assessment in Suicide Research (2022) · cites this paper as [23]
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“Given that an important function of affect is to change in response to fluctuating environmental demands (Kashdan & Rottenberg, 2010), greater temporal dependency of affect can be considered to reflect affective inflexibility or resistance to change (Hollenstein, 2015).”
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- Authors
- Trull, T. J., Lane, S. P., Koval, P., & Ebner-Priemer, U. W.
- Affiliations
- University of Missouri (US)
- Australian Catholic University (AU)
- Department of Sport and Sport Science and House of Competence, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Germany
- Corresponding author
- Trull, Timothy J.
- Venue
- Emotion Review
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2015-07-09
- Volume
- 7
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 355-361
- ISSN
- 1754-0739 (ISSN-L)
- 1754-0747
- PMC
- PMC5016030
- OpenAlex
- W2283355370
- Cited by
- 274
- References
- 57
- Citations by year
- 2026: 30 · 2025: 33 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 24 · 2021: 34 · 2020: 24 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 24 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 5
- FWCI
- 24.10
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Emotion Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Lirias (KU Leuven) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (P60AA011998, R21AA022099)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Disorders and Psychopathology
- Keywords
- emotional dynamics, neuroticism, emotional inertia, emotion differentiation, psychopathology, emotion regulation, ecological momentary assessment, ambulatory assessment
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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