The DOI matches its Crossref record; 127 of the 140 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 6 of the 86 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching
Open accessAbstract
Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide "internal" guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.
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Claims the paper makes
34 Own interpretation · 32 No full text of the sources · 16 Sources not found · 12 No basis given · 8 Not checked yet · 4 Partly supported · 2 Supported · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Method passage says direct instruction included examples and explanations, while discovery learning included neither. The Day 1 assessment reports that 77% of children receiving direct instruction mastered the experimental-design skill, compared with 23% receiving discovery learning. The finding concerns this skill in third- and fourth-grade children, not learning in general. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Discussion reports that the few children who mastered the skill through discovery were as proficient at evaluating science-fair posters as those who mastered it through direct instruction. The Day 2: Poster Evaluations section likewise reports no difference in poster scores between the two groups. This supports the claim about the quality of learning among the relatively few discovery learners who achieved mastery. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Working memory has two well-known characteristics: When processing novel information, it is very limited in duration and in capacity.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peterson & Peterson, 1959 source
- Partly supportedcites Miller, 1956 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In the discussion of immediate memory (pp. 92–93), Miller says its span is limited by the number of chunks, supporting the capacity part of the claim. The paper does not establish a limit on duration, and it does not specifically frame the finding as applying when processing novel information. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Discussion report a clear advantage for direct instruction over discovery learning in teaching third- and fourth-grade children to design simple, unconfounded experiments. But the claim broadens that finding to science instruction generally: among children who mastered the skill, the two groups performed equally well on broader scientific judgments, and the Discussion calls for matching instructional approaches to topic and student. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Much of this work provides a clear antecedent to the expertise reversal effect, discussed earlier, according to which instructional methods that are effective for novices become less effective as expertise increases.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Woltz Article section reports that stronger treatments benefited less able learners, whereas weaker treatments benefited more able learners—an ATI pattern that could be viewed as an antecedent. It does not specifically discuss novices becoming experts or identify an expertise reversal effect, and it describes the ATI findings as somewhat inconsistent. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Constructivist approaches to instruction are based, in part, on a concern that individual differences moderate the impact of instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The THEMES section describes aptitude–treatment interactions and says instruction should accommodate individual learners’ aptitudes. That supports the concern that individual differences affect how instruction works, but the paper does not connect that concern specifically to constructivist approaches. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For novices, studying worked examples seems invariably superior to discovering or constructing a solution to a problem.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The result is a set of differently named but similar instructional approaches requiring minimal guidance that are disconnected from much that we know of human cognition.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are skillful in an area because our long-term memory contains huge amounts of information concerning the area.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlled experiments almost uniformly indicate that when dealing with novel information, learners should be explicitly shown what to do and how to do it.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH COMPARING GUIDED AND UNGUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 24
- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
In the paper
“A similar line of reasoning was followed by Dehoney (1995), who posited that the mental models and strategies of experts have been developed through the slow process of accumulating experience in their domain areas.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dehoney, 1995
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The finding that expert chess players are far better able than novices to reproduce briefly seen board configurations taken from real games, but do not differ in reproducing random board configurations, has been replicated in a variety of other areas”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites De Groot, 1945/1965
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chase & Simon, 1973 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The aim of all instruction is to alter long-term memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complete information will result in a more accurate representation that is also more easily acquired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Hardiman, Pollatsek, and Weil (1986) and Brown and Campione (1994) noted that when students learn science in classrooms with pure-discovery methods and minimal feedback, they often become lost and frustrated, and their confusion can lead to misconceptions.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hardiman, Pollatsek, & Weil, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brown & Campione, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The more knowledgeable learners did not experience a negative effect and benefited equally from both types of treatments.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet it may be a fundamental error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on methods and processes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional theory that ignores the limits of working memory when dealing with novel information or ignores the disappearance of those limits when dealing with familiar information is unlikely to be effective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, that working memory load does not contribute to the accumulation of knowledge in long-term memory because while working memory is being used to search for problem solutions, it is not available and cannot be used to learn.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Tuovinen and Sweller (1999) showed that exploration practice (a discovery technique) caused a much larger cognitive load and led to poorer learning than worked-examples practice.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The constructivist description of learning is accurate, but the instructional consequences suggested by constructivists do not necessarily follow.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional recommendation that does not or cannot specify what has been changed in long-term memory, or that does not increase the efficiency with which relevant information is stored in or retrieved from long-term memory, is likely to be ineffective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minimally guided instruction appears to proceed with no reference to the characteristics of working memory, long-term memory, or the intricate relations between them.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN COGNITIVE ARCHITECTURE FOR MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most learners of all ages know how to construct knowledge when given adequate information and there is no evidence that presenting them with partial information enhances their ability to construct a representation more than giving them full information.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In all of the many studies he reported, guided instruction not only produced more immediate recall of facts than unguided approaches, but also longer term transfer and problem-solving skills.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Solving a problem requires problem-solving search and search must occur using our limited working memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Berkson (1993) also reviewed much of the literature on PBL and arrived at many of the same conclusions as Albanese and Mitchell (1993).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“He provided evidence that the same learner might benefit from stronger and weaker treatments depending on the type of learning and transfer outcome desired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Woltz, 2003 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Each of these and other publications by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences amply document the lack of evidence for unguided approaches and the benefits of more strongly guided instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McCray, DeHaan, and Schuck (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gollub, Berthanthal, Labov, and Curtis (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Kilpatrick, Swafford, and Findell (2001)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, problem-solving search overburdens limited working memory and requires working memory resources to be used for activities that are unrelated to learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the instructional methods described by Cronbach and Snow (1977) strong treatments implied highly structured instructional presentations where explicit organization of information and learning support were provided.The weaker treatments were relatively unstructured and so provided much less learning support.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Both researchers concluded that the available evidence does not support the use of minimal guidance and both suggested that some form of stronger guidance is necessary for both effective learning and transfer.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Roblyer, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Perkins, 1991
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, studying a worked example both reduces working memory load because search is reduced or eliminated and directs attention (i.e., directs working memory resources) to learning the essential relations between problem-solving moves.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Their meta-analysis of the English language literature of the effectiveness of PBL produced a number of negative findings concerning its impact, including lower basic science exam scores, no differences in residency selections, and more study hours each day.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They reported that although PBL students receive better scores for their clinical performance, they also order significantly more unnecessary tests at a much higher cost per patient with less benefit.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It emphasizes the importance of providing novices in an area with extensive guidance because they do not have sufficient knowledge in long-term memory to prevent unproductive problem-solving search.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“All in all, a lack of clarity about the difference between learning a discipline and research in the discipline coupled with the priority afforded to unbiased observation in the best inductivist and empiricist tradition has led many educators to advocate a problem-based method as the way to teach a discipline (Allen, Barker, & Ramsden, 1986;Anthony, 1973;Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980;Obioma, 1986).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Clark hypothesized that the most effective components of treatments help less experienced learners by providing task-specific learning strategies embedded in instructional presentations.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Not matched
In the paper
“More able learners, he suggested, have acquired implicit, task-specific learning strategies that are more effective for them than those embedded in the structured versions of the course.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“He concluded that the magnitude of these statistics is not sufficient to meet standards of predictive validity to support the use of the measures or the experiential methods for training at work.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Iliff, 1994
- Not matchedcites Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Higher aptitude students who chose highly structured approaches tended to like them but achieve at a lower level than with less structured versions but did not suffer by knowing less after than before instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Clark, 1982 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Clark pointed to suggestive evidence that more able students who select the more guided versions of courses do so because they believe that they will achieve the required learning with a minimum of effort.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Cronbach and Snow's (1977) review of ATI research described a number of replicated ordinal and disordinal interactions between various instructional methods and aptitudes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“There was an indication in their review that increased clinical practice evaluation scores may have been due to the fact the PBL students are required to spend more time in clinical settings.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“She reviewed studies where the problem-solving ability of PBL students was compared with the same ability in conventionally trained students and found no support for any differences, and so failed to replicate the clinical advantage found by Albanese and Mitchell.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it may be an error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on application.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Also important for medical educators has been the constant finding in research summaries that PBL is not more effective but is more costly than traditional instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites research summaries
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the reasons for the ongoing popularity of a failed approach are unclear, the origins of the support for instruction with minimal guidance in science education and medical education might be found in the post-Sputnik science curriculum reforms such as Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Chemical Education Material Study, and Physical Science Study Committee.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) found that participants trained in PBL retained the backward-directed reasoning pattern, but did not seem to acquire forward-directed reasoning, which is a hallmark of expertise.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practice of a profession is not the same as learning to practice the profession.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only is unguided instruction normally less effective; there is also evidence that it may have negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This point of view appears to have led to unguided practical or project work and the rejection of instruction based on the facts, laws, principles, and theories that make up a discipline's content.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) concluded that the negative results can be accounted for by the effect of splitting of attention resources and the high working memory load on schema acquisition during problem solving.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At that time, educators shifted away from teaching a discipline as a body of knowledge toward the assumption that knowledge can best or only be learned through experience that is based only on the procedures of the discipline.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If students have difficulty separating the biomedical knowledge they have learned from the particular clinical cases associated with that knowledge, it is not surprising that when given a different problem they bring to bear on the new problem some irrelevant biomedical knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although PBL students generated more elaborate explanations, they had less coherent explanations and more errors.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Patel, Groen, and Norman (1993) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“La mémoire de travail est la structure cognitive dans laquelle les processus conscients ont lieu. Elle est très limitée à la fois en durée et en quantité.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“these results align with claims that a certain degree of instructional support is needed in the use of video games in order to achieve the desired learning outcome [81-83].”
From The Effect of Multiplayer Video Games on Incidental and Intentional L2 Vocabulary Learning: The Case of Among Us (2021) · cites this paper as [81]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“la situation de résolution de problèmes non guidée place la mémoire de travail dans une situation de surcharge cognitive, rendant impossible le transfert d'informations dans la mémoire à long terme (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This could potentially explain how step-by-step usage of the AI code generator could potentially reduce cognitive load and allow novices to learn faster due to more availability of their mental resources, specifcally for germane cognitive load which is responsible for creating mental models and storing long-term memory [46].”
From Studying the effect of AI Code Generators on Supporting Novice Learners in Introductory Programming (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Analysis of Kirschner et al. [16] showed that learning with DBL and related methods is highly complex, and can thus overwhelm learners.”
From Students as Designers of Augmented Reality: Impact on Learning and Motivation in Computer Science (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“il est nécessaire de tenir compte des limitations de la mémoire de travail, chose que ne font pas toujours les approches minimalement guidées”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“le but de toute instruction est donc de modifier la mémoire à long terme.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“To the best of our knowledge, this is the first integrative empirical counterevidence against the claim that problem solving as a sensemaking activity for novices is not an effective instructional approach (cf. Kirschner etal., 2006, and follow-up work).”
From When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure (2021) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Scaffolding in these contexts also has the potential to help problem-centered instructional models overcome criticisms that they do not lead to adequate content learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From Synthesizing Results From Empirical Research on Computer-Based Scaffolding in STEM Education (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The former is more closely aligned with a teaching model that emphasises direct instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Examining Science Education in ChatGPT: An Exploratory Study of Generative Artificial Intelligence (2023) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, the usage of guided discovery learning is more effective and efficient than a minimally guided instructional approach (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006) because it provides the guidance needed by students to achieve the intended learning outcome (Mayer, 2004).”
From Teaching and Learning Science Using YouTube Videos and Discovery Learning in Primary School (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These domain-specific, biologically secondary skills need to be explicitly taught (Kirschner et al. 2006; Sweller et al. 2007) and actively learned.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al. 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cette différence entre (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'apprentissage et (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'enseignement (dont l'efficacité est remise en doute par des recherches basées sur des données probantes décrites dans les sections 1 et 3) a également été relevée par Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006) : « La description constructiviste de l'apprentissage est exacte, mais les”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“presque toutes les informations stockées en mémoire de travail qui ne sont pas répétées sont perdues après 30 secondes (Kirschner et al., 2006)”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“l'exploration libre d'un environnement complexe peut générer une forte charge cognitive qui est néfaste à l'apprentissage. Ceci est particulièrement vrai pour les apprenants novices (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Tuovinen et Sweller (1999) ont montré que la « pratique d'exploration » (une approche par la découverte) causait une bien plus grande charge cognitive et menait à un apprentissage plus pauvre que les problèmes déjà résolus (« worked examples ») (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“les « experts en résolution de problèmes » développent leurs compétences en s'appuyant sur leur grande expérience qui leur a permis de stocker nombre de schémas dans leur mémoire à long terme; ces derniers leur permettant de résoudre plus facilement les problèmes (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Un apprenant peut donc être engagé dans des activités de résolution de problèmes pendant un temps important et ne presque rien apprendre en fin de compte (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Those who think they are capable of multitasking tend to overestimate their ability in the actual multitasking tasks (Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013) or assume they can do them without the loss of efficiency and productivity (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From The indirect relationship of media multitasking self-efficacy on learning performance within the personal learning environment: Implications from the mechanism of perceived attention problems and self-regulation strategies (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006) have shown that there exists a clear body of research using controlled experiments indicating that the relatively guided instructional procedures supported by cognitive load theorists are more effective (at least for novice students) than relatively unguided instructional procedures used by advocates of discovery or inquiry learning.”
From Cognitive Load Theory: New Conceptualizations, Specifications, and Integrated Research Perspectives (2010) · cites this paper as P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006)
In the citing paper
“Adaptive feedback (which is well-known to be essential in exploratory learning environments, Kirschner et al., 2006) is provided to students based on their interactions with the system and their affective states.”
From Affective learning: Improving engagement and enhancing learning with affect-aware feedback (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“if a learning environment is too cognitively demanding, schema construction and schema automation in LTM are not going to occur (P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006).”
From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006
In the citing paper
“There is a strong inclination toward exploratory teaching pedagogies involving digital resources for teaching about AI (c.f. [99,100]).”
From In search of artificial intelligence (AI) literacy in teacher education: A scoping review (2024) · cites this paper as [99]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
“De Groot's (1945Groot's ( /1965) work on chess expertise”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > References
“De Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague, Nether- lands: Mouton. (Original work published 1946)”
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–200 of 6,869
Does Working Memory Training Transfer? A Meta-Analysis Including Training Conditions as Moderators
Schwaighofer, M., Fischer, F., & Bühner, M. (2015) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2015.1036274 · Cited by 332
Capps, D. K., Crawford, B. A., & Constas, M. A. (2012) · Journal of Science Teacher Education · doi:10.1007/s10972-012-9275-2 · Cited by 382
“Others have questioned the effectiveness of instructional approaches like inquiry, based on the way humans learn and by citing evidence from empirical studies (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundWilson, C. D., Taylor, J. A., Kowalski, S. M., & Carlson, J. (2009) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.20329 · Cited by 356
“The title of their study suggests that Kirschner et al. (2006) equate inquiry with other instructional approaches as being characterized by ‘‘minimal guidance during instruction,’’ an assertion contested in a response by Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, and Chinn (2007).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialThirty years of research on online learning
Mayer, R. E. (2018) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3482 · Cited by 428
“Instructional design goal description”
Taking Shape: Supporting Preschoolers' Acquisition of Geometric Knowledge Through Guided Play
Fisher, K. R., Hirsh‐Pasek, K., Newcombe, N. S., & Golinkoff, R. M. (2013) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12091 · Cited by 334
Direct instruction vs. discovery: The long view
Dean Jr., D., & Kuhn, D. (2007) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.20194 · Cited by 325
Active versus passive teaching styles: An empirical study of student learning outcomes
Michel, N. J., Cater, J. J., & Varela, O. E. (2009) · Human Resource Development Quarterly · doi:10.1002/hrdq.20025 · Cited by 353
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Rienties, B., & Toetenel, L. (2016) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.02.074 · Cited by 312
“First, although more than 80% of learners were satisfied with their learning experience, as evidenced by several leading scholars (Kirschner et al., 2006; Koedinger et al., 2013) learning does not always needs to be a nice, pleasant experience.”
BackgroundTaber, K. S. (2015) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-9634-1.ch006 · Cited by 312
“However, a major problem with the work of the critics of constructivist approaches (Kirschner et al., 2006) is how they characterise constructivist pedagogy as involving minimal guidance, that is as learners proceeding with limited input from the teacher.”
BackgroundCognitive Load Theory for the Design of Medical Simulations
Fraser, K. L., Ayres, P., & Sweller, J. (2015) · Simulation in Healthcare: The Journal of the Society for Simulation in Healthcare · doi:10.1097/sih.0000000000000097 · Cited by 306
Self-citationKyriakidēs, L., Creemers, B., & Antoniou, P. (2008) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2008.06.001 · Cited by 306
The worked example effect and human cognition
Sweller, J. (2006) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2006.02.005 · Cited by 331
Self-citationHow Effective are Pedagogical Agents for Learning? A Meta-Analytic Review
Schroeder, N. L., Adesope, O., & Gilbert, R. B. (2013) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.2190/ec.49.1.a · Cited by 303
“Researchers have suggested that human cognition is centralized around the long-term memory (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006; Sweller, 2005).”
BackgroundStull, A. T., & Mayer, R. E. (2007) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.99.4.808 · Cited by 295
Blended Learning : Using Technology in and beyond the Language Classroom
Sharma, P., & Barret, B. (2007) · Cited by 292
The Things You Do to Know: An Introduction to the Pedagogy of Multiliteracies
Cope, B., & Kalantzis, M. (2015) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1057/9781137539724_1 · Cited by 312
Developing Self-Directed Learners
Robinson, J. D., & Persky, A. M. (2020) · American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education · doi:10.5688/ajpe847512 · Cited by 290
Problem-Based and Project-Based Learning in Engineering Education
Kolmos, A., & de Graaff, E. (2014) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139013451.012 · Cited by 303
The Psychology of Academic Achievement
Winne, P. H., & Nesbit, J. C. (2009) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100348 · Cited by 320
“A review by Kirschner et al. (2006) explained the evidence against minimally guided instruction in terms of cognitive load theory.”
BackgroundBringing Engineering Design into High School Science Classrooms: The Heating/Cooling Unit
Apedoe, X. S., Reynolds, B., Ellefson, M., & Schunn, C. D. (2008) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-008-9114-6 · Cited by 297
“One general concern about hands-on or inquiry activities is that students do not learn the underlying science concepts through these activities as well as they would have learned the same material though direct instruction (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundA rational account of pedagogical reasoning: Teaching by, and learning from, examples
Shafto, P., Goodman, N. D., & Griffiths, T. L. (2014) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2013.12.004 · Cited by 266
Productive failure in mathematical problem solving
Kapur, M. (2009) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-009-9093-x · Cited by 286
Mamun, M. A. A., Lawrie, G. A., & Wright, T. (2019) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103695 · Cited by 312
Serious Games for education and training
Gloria, A. D., Bellotti, F., & Berta, R. (2014) · International Journal of Serious Games · doi:10.17083/ijsg.v1i1.11 · Cited by 310
“However, [38] argues for the importance of guidance, in particular for novices.”
BackgroundKirschner, F., PAAS, F. G. W. C., & Kirschner, P. A. (2009) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2008.12.008 · Cited by 303
“Some criticism of problem based learning is based upon findings that while the problems are successfully solved, the learners do not effectively learn from working together (Kirschner et al., 2006; Sweller et al., 2007).”
BackgroundSelf-citationWittwer, J., & Renkl, A. (2008) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520701756420 · Cited by 277
“Under these circumstances, providing learners with explanatory information might be an optimal way to help them construct new knowledge because they have little chance to do so on their own (eg, Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006 ).”
BackgroundPBL and CDIO: complementary models for engineering education development
Edström, K., & Kolmos, A. (2014) · European Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1080/03043797.2014.895703 · Cited by 276
“Some voices also warn about risks such as lack in disciplinary knowledge (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006).”
BackgroundData‐Driven Learning: Taking the Computer Out of the Equation
Boulton, A. (2010) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2010.00566.x · Cited by 276
“Kirschner et al. (2006) make a convincing case that novice learners and those with lower aptitudes do not learn effectively from a purely inductive approach, as they do not have sufficient prior knowledge and schemas to draw on, resulting in overload of working memory.”
BackgroundHospel, V., & Galand, B. (2016) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2015.09.001 · Cited by 275
“According to cognitive load theory (CLT), given our limited cognitiveresources,providingclearguidancereducescognitiveload related to the learning tasks and allows students to focus their attention on relevant information, which facilitates learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
Blikstein, P. (2013) · International Conference on Learning Analytics and Knowledge (LAK) · doi:10.1145/2460296.2460316 · Cited by 275
Vogler, J. S., Thompson, P., Davis, D. W., Mayfield, B. E., Finley, P. M., & Yasseri, D. (2017) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-017-9438-9 · Cited by 274
Domain-Specific Knowledge and Why Teaching Generic Skills Does Not Work
Tricot, A., & Sweller, J. (2014) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-013-9243-1 · Cited by 273
Self-citationEseryel, D., Law, V., Ifenthaler, D., Ge, X., & Miller, R. B. (2014) · eSpace (Curtin University) · Cited by 270
Handbook of Emerging Technologies for Learning
Siemens, G., & Tittenberger, P. (2009) · Cited by 286
Meyer, H. (2014) · PADUA · doi:10.1024/1861-6186/a000170 · Cited by 269
Blikstein, P., Worsley, M. B., Piech, C., Sahami, M., Cooper, S., & Koller, D. (2014) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1080/10508406.2014.954750 · Cited by 266
“Although this vision has captured the hearts and minds of educators since the turn of the 20th century, its need and feasibility has come under attack several times during the past decade (e.g., Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006; Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundTrelease, R. B. (2016) · Anatomical Sciences Education · doi:10.1002/ase.1620 · Cited by 292
“…dominating newer health sciences curricula, have devalued authoritative lectures and other ‘transmissive’ teaching in favor of student self-learning (Kirschner et al., 2006), a more recent trend favors ‘flipping’ or ‘inverting’ classes by requiring before-class use of online lecture resources,…”
BackgroundDifferentiated Overt Learning Activities for Effective Instruction in Engineering Classrooms
Menekşe, M., Stump, G. S., Krause, S., & Chi, M. T. H. (2013) · Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/jee.20021 · Cited by 274
Natural Information Processing Systems
Sweller, J., & Sweller, S. (2006) · Evolutionary Psychology · doi:10.1177/147470490600400135 · Cited by 279
“More recent approaches emphasize “constructivist teaching” procedures or “inquiry learning” but are indistinguishable from discovery learning (Kirschner, Sweller and Clark, 2006).”
Self-citationKönig, J. A., Blömeke, S., Klein, P., Suhl, U., Busse, A., & Kaiser, G. (2014) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2013.11.004 · Cited by 273
Bonrath, E. M., Dedy, N. J., Gordon, L. E., & Grantcharov, T. P. (2015) · Annals of Surgery · doi:10.1097/sla.0000000000001214 · Cited by 260
Learning Through Play at School – A Framework for Policy and Practice
Parker, R., Thomsen, B. S., & Berry, A. (2022) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2022.751801 · Cited by 263
Rönnebeck, S., Bernholt, S., & Ropohl, M. (2016) · Studies in Science Education · doi:10.1080/03057267.2016.1206351 · Cited by 308
Evaluating the use of problem-based video podcasts to teach mathematics in higher education
Kay, R. H., & Kletskin, I. (2012) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2012.03.007 · Cited by 291
Learning and knowing in networks: Changing roles for educators and designers
Siemens, G. (2008) · Cited by 252
Loyens, S. M. M., & Gijbels, D. (2008) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-008-9059-4 · Cited by 252
“Others have even argued that constructivism is in conflict with human, cognitive architecture (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundLehmann, T., Hähnlein, I. S., & Ifenthaler, D. (2013) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2013.07.051 · Cited by 282
Design factors for educationally effective animations and simulations
Plass, J. L., Homer, B. D., & Hayward, E. O. (2009) · Journal of Computing in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s12528-009-9011-x · Cited by 267
“While computer simulations offer a unique context for discovery learning, novice learners often struggle with exploratory learning when there are no supports to guide their efforts (de Jong and van Joolingen 1998; Kirschner et al. 2006; Mayer 2004).”
BackgroundDesigning Effective Serious Games: Opportunities and Challenges for Research
Bellotti, F., Berta, R., & Gloria, A. D. (2010) · International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (iJET) · doi:10.3991/ijet.v5s3.1500 · Cited by 266
“In particular, [29] refers to the cognitive load theory (CLT) [30], that stresses that information needs to pass through the working memory in order to be learnt and stored in long-term memory.”
BackgroundMeschede, N., Fiebranz, A., Möller, K., & Steffensky, M. (2017) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2017.04.010 · Cited by 283
Foundations of online learning: Challenges and opportunities
Greenhow, C. M., Graham, C. R., & Koehler, M. J. (2022) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2022.2090364 · Cited by 333
“…& Wylie, 2014), regulated learning (e.g., Hadwin et al., 2018), collaborative learning (e.g., Jeong & Hmelo-Silver, 2016), guided discovery (e.g., Kirschner et al., 2006, 2009; Mayer, 2009), and socioemotional learning (e.g., Wentzel, 2019), to name just a few, can be leveraged to solve pressing…”
BackgroundTobias, S., Fletcher, J. D., & Wind, A. P. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-3185-5_38 · Cited by 295
Theoretical Perspectives Influencing the Use of Information Technology in Teaching and Learning
Dede, C. (2008) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-73315-9_3 · Cited by 252
“, arithmetic operations, Newtonian physics) are learned more quickly when taught as “truths” than when found through exploration that, in extreme unguided forms, involves students slowly reinventing civilization (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundChen, O., Castro-Alonso, J. C., Paas, F., & Sweller, J. (2018) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-017-9426-2 · Cited by 239
Self-citationBerthold, K., Eysink, T. H. S., & Renkl, A. (2009) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-008-9051-z · Cited by 238
Five research-based heuristics for using video in pre-service teacher education
Blomberg, G., Renkl, A., Sherin, M. G., Borko, H., & Seidel, T. (2013) · Pedocs (German Institute for International Educational Research) · doi:10.25656/01:8021 · Cited by 253
Rethinking the Boundaries of Cognitive Load Theory in Complex Learning
Kalyuga, S., & Singh, A.-M. (2016) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9352-0 · Cited by 241
Dahri, N. A., Yahaya, N., Al-Rahmi, W. M., Aldraiweesh, A., Alturki, U., Almutairy, S., Shutaleva, A., & Soomro, R. B. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e29317 · Cited by 239
Flexibility in problem solving: The case of equation solving
Star, J. R., & Rittle‐Johnson, B. (2007) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2007.09.018 · Cited by 231
Learning to argue online: Scripted groups surpass individuals (unscripted groups do not)
Weinberger, A., Stegmann, K., & Fischer, F. (2009) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2009.08.007 · Cited by 245
Scaffolding information problem solving in web-based collaborative inquiry learning
Raes, A., Schellens, T., Wever, B. D., & Vanderhoven, E. (2011) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2011.11.010 · Cited by 235
“These findings are consistent with previous research that stressed that students with insufficient prior knowledge can suffer from minimal guidance (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
ResultProductive failure in learning the concept of variance
Kapur, M. (2012) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-012-9209-6 · Cited by 253
“, worked examples) favorably with unguided or minimally guided discovery learning instruction (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialCarlone, H. B., Haun‐Frank, J., & Webb, A. W. (2011) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.20413 · Cited by 249
The interplay between self-regulation in learning and cognitive load
Seufert, T. (2018) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2018.03.004 · Cited by 227
Blomberg, G., Sherin, M. G., Renkl, A., Glogger‐Frey, I., & Seidel, T. (2013) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-013-9281-6 · Cited by 257
Sailer, M., Schultz-Pernice, F., & Fischer, F. (2021) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2021.106794 · Cited by 299
Social presence within the community of inquiry framework
Annand, D. (2011) · The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning · doi:10.19173/irrodl.v12i5.924 · Cited by 221
“As Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2007) stated, controlled studies almost uniformly suggest that strong guidance is needed during the instruction of novices and intermediate learners to minimize cognitive load on short-term memory during the initial learning process.”
Backgroundvan de Pol, J., Volman, M., Oort, F., & Beishuizen, J. (2015) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-015-9351-z · Cited by 220
“Although it is not known to what extent students should work independently, it is now generally agreed that students at least need some support and guidance during the learning process and that minimal guidance does not work (e.g., Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundLearning Is Moving in New Ways: The Ecological Dynamics of Mathematics Education
Abrahamson, D., & García, R. S. (2016) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1080/10508406.2016.1143370 · Cited by 223
Sweller, J. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09817-2 · Cited by 220
“…effects on instructional design principles with many common recommendations proceeding as though the characteristics and intricate relations between working memory and long-term memory do not exist, or if they do exist, are irrelevant to instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006; Zhang et al., 2022).”
Self-citationKirschner, F., Paas, F., & Kirschner, P. A. (2011) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1730 · Cited by 219
“Scaffolding and achievement in problem-based and inquiry learning: A response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationLiterature review: the role of the teacher in inquiry-based education
Dobber, M., Zwart, R., Tanis, M., & van Oers, B. (2017) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2017.09.002 · Cited by 222
Is Direct Instruction an Answer to the Right Question?
Kuhn, D. (2007) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520701263376 · Cited by 217
“Rather, my objective is to make explicit the implications of these claims with respect to a position like the one that has been advanced by Kirschner et al. and a number of others (Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Mayer, 2004). In addition to describing the positive attributes of direct instruction as the preferred instructional…”
BackgroundJärvelä, S., Järvenoja, H., Malmberg, J., Isohätälä, J., & Sobocinski, M. (2016) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.01.005 · Cited by 220
Learning theories 101: application to everyday teaching and scholarship
Kay, D., & Kibble, J. D. (2016) · AJP Advances in Physiology Education · doi:10.1152/advan.00132.2015 · Cited by 218
“For example, concepts represent the most fundamental constructs in theories of the mind (28).”
BackgroundNäykki, P., Järvelä, S., Kirschner, P. A., & Järvenoja, H. (2014) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2014.07.001 · Cited by 234
Self-citationCairns, D., & Areepattamannil, S. (2017) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-017-9639-x · Cited by 248
The role of teachers in facilitating situational interest in an active-learning classroom
Rotgans, J. I., & Schmidt, H. G. (2010) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2010.06.025 · Cited by 245
Schrader, C., & Bastiaens, T. J. (2011) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2011.11.011 · Cited by 222
Innovation, NCLB, and the Fear Factor
Schoen, L. T., & Fusarelli, L. D. (2008) · Educational Policy · doi:10.1177/0895904807311291 · Cited by 210
Bell, R., & Bell, H. (2020) · Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development · doi:10.1108/jsbed-01-2020-0012 · Cited by 305
Lyon, A. R., Stirman, S. W., Kerns, S. E. U., & Bruns, E. J. (2011) · Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research · doi:10.1007/s10488-010-0331-y · Cited by 210
Gage, N. A., Scott, T. M., Hirn, R. G., & MacSuga‐Gage, A. S. (2017) · Behavioral Disorders · doi:10.1177/0198742917714809 · Cited by 220
Taub, M., Sawyer, R., Smith, A., Rowe, J., Azevedo, R., & Lester, J. C. (2019) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103781 · Cited by 239
Narrative games for learning: Testing the discovery and narrative hypotheses.
Adams, D. M., Mayer, R. E., MacNamara, A., Koenig, A., & Wainess, R. (2012) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0025595 · Cited by 207
“In contrast, as described previously, the distraction view is based on the idea that learners have a limited cognitive capacity so they are able to engage in only a limited amount of cognitive processing at any one time during learning (Kirschner et al., 2006; Mayer, 2009; Sweller, 1999).”
BackgroundThe production-oriented approach to teaching university students English in China
Qiufang, W. (2016) · Language Teaching · doi:10.1017/s026144481600001x · Cited by 224
Cognitive Load Theory: Historical Development and Relation to Other Theories
Moreno, R., & Park, B. (2010) · Cognitive Load Theory · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511844744.003 · Cited by 204
Effects of Autonomy-Supportive Teaching on Student Learning and Motivation
Furtak, E. M., & Kunter, M. (2012) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2011.573019 · Cited by 225
“The debate continues as to whether and how science classrooms should undergo changes toward more autonomy-supportive formats (Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007; Kirschner et al., 2006; Mayer, 2004; Stefanou et al., 2004; Turner et al., 1998).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialThe Cognitive-Situative Divide and the Problem of Conceptual Change
Vosniadou, S. (2007) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520709336918 · Cited by 214
“This means that knowledge must be seen not only as a process but also as a product, an object to be taught (see also Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006 ; Vosniadou, 2005 ; Vosniadou, Ioannides, Dimitrakopoulou, & Papademitriou, 2001 ).”
BackgroundKnowledge Building and Knowledge Creation: One Concept, Two Hills to Climb
Bereiter, C., & Scardamalia, M. (2014) · Education innovation series · doi:10.1007/978-981-287-047-6_3 · Cited by 169
When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure
Sinha, T., & Kapur, M. (2021) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543211019105 · Cited by 212
“…explicitly via cognitive scaffolds, worked examples, and so on, our view is that the first stage of PF does not resemble (direct) instruction, a learning experience where students are introduced to formal concepts of a domain in the most unambiguous (eloquent) way possible (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
InfluentialBaeten, M., Dochy, F. J. R. C., & Struyven, K. (2012) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.2012.02076.x · Cited by 223
Altmeyer, K., Kapp, S., Thees, M., Malone, S., Kühn, J., & Brünken, R. (2020) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12900 · Cited by 244
On Becoming an Experiential Educator
Kolb, A. Y., Kolb, D. A., Passarelli, A. M., & Sharma, G. (2014) · Simulation & Gaming · doi:10.1177/1046878114534383 · Cited by 274
“Their argument is purely a cognitive one based on research on long- and short-term memory suggesting that “If nothing has changed in long term memory, nothing has been learned” (Kirschner et al., 2006, p. 77).”
BackgroundInfluentialJournal of Counselor Preparation and Supervision
Renfro-Michel, E., & Burlew, L. D. (2026) · Journal of Counselor Preparation and Supervision · doi:10.7729/00.5277 · Cited by 199
Chinese Education Examined via the Lens of Self-Determination
Yu, S., Chen, B., Levesque‐Bristol, C., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2016) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-016-9395-x · Cited by 223
Educational Technologies in Problem-Based Learning in Health Sciences Education: A Systematic Review
Jin, J., & Bridges, S. (2014) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.3240 · Cited by 220
“This issue has been debated in recent PBL and inquiry learning scholarship [18,19] with detractors indicating concerns that PBL does not provide sufficient scaffolding and that the open nature of the problems may add to cognitive load [18].”
BackgroundCognitive load theory and its relationships with motivation: A self-determination theory perspective
Evans, P., Vansteenkiste, M., Parker, P., Kingsford-Smith, A., & Zhou, S. (2024) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09841-2 · Cited by 200
“Structure is akin to the concept of guidance (vs. minimal guidance) described by Kirschner et al. (2006), who claimed that minimal guidance is generally associated with higher extraneous cognitive load.”
Motivation and Transfer: The Role of Mastery-Approach Goals in Preparation for Future Learning
Belenky, D. M., & Nokes-Malach, T. J. (2012) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1080/10508406.2011.651232 · Cited by 195
Metadata
- Authors
- Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2006-06
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 75-86
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1976637107
- Semantic Scholar
- cb9f9f2768fbb5eeab699c9147d622fc68b9edac
- Cited by
- 7,776
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 705 · 2025: 534 · 2024: 429 · 2023: 407 · 2022: 394 · 2021: 458 · 2020: 519 · 2019: 457 · 2018: 431 · 2017: 387 · 2016: 446 · 2015: 428 · 2014: 388 · 2013: 399 · 2012: 376
- FWCI
- 117.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- guided teaching, constructivist teaching, discovery learning, problem-based learning, experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, cognitive architecture, expert-novice differences, cognitive load, prior knowledge, instructional design model
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