The DOI matches its Crossref record; 6 of the 6 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
The Problem of Units and the Circumstance for POMP
Abstract
Many areas of the behavioral sciences have few measures that are accepted as the standard for the operationalization of a construct. One consequence is that there is hardly ever an articulated and understood framework for the units of the measures that are employed. Without meaningful measurement units, theoretical formulations are limited to statements of the direction of an effect or association, or to effects expressed in standardized units. Thus the long term scientific goal of generation of laws expressing the relationships among variables in scale units is greatly hindered. This article reviews alternative methods of scoring a scale. Two recent journal volumes are surveyed with regard to current scoring practices. Alternative methods of scoring are evaluated against seven articulated criteria representing the information conveyed by each in an illustrative example. Converting scores to the percent of maximum possible score (POMP) is shown to provide useful additional information in many cases.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.185.4157.1124 · Cited by 28,810
Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1975) · Utility, Probability, and Human Decision Making · doi:10.1007/978-94-010-1834-0_8 · Cited by 22,650
Cohen, J. (1994) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.49.12.997 · Cited by 4,003
Self-citationThe statistical power of abnormal-social psychological research: A review.
Cohen, J. (1962) · The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0045186 · Cited by 1,824
Self-citationHambleton, R. K., & Swaminathan, H. (1985) · doi:10.1007/978-94-017-1988-9 · Cited by 1,777
Functional measurement and psychophysical judgment.
Anderson, N. H. (1970) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0029064 · Cited by 576
Cited by
Evaluating Effect Size in Psychological Research: Sense and Nonsense
Funder, D. C., & Ozer, D. J. (2019) · Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2515245919847202 · Cited by 3,295
Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic incentives jointly predict performance: A 40-year meta-analysis.
Cerasoli, C. P., Nicklin, J. M., & Ford, M. T. (2014) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0035661 · Cited by 1,981
Use of the Extreme Groups Approach: A Critical Reexamination and New Recommendations.
Preacher, K. J., Rucker, D. D., MacCallum, R. C., & Nicewander, W. A. (2005) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.10.2.178 · Cited by 732
Standardized or simple effect size: what should be reported?
Baguley, T. (2009) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1348/000712608x377117 · Cited by 619
Analytic cognitive style predicts religious and paranormal belief
Pennycook, G., Cheyne, J. A., Seli, P., Koehler, D. J., & Fugelsang, J. A. (2012) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2012.03.003 · Cited by 544
The Human Amygdala and the Induction and Experience of Fear
Feinstein, J. S., Adolphs, R., Damasio, A., & Tranel, D. (2011) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2010.11.042 · Cited by 497
The social costs of emotional suppression: a prospective study of the transition to college
Srivastava, S., Tamir, M., McGonigal, K. M., John, O. P., & Gross, J. J. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0014755 · Cited by 504
Neuroticism as a common dimension in the internalizing disorders
Griffith, J. W., Zinbarg, R. E., Craske, M. G., Mineka, S., Rose, R. D., Waters, A. M., & Sutton, J. M. (2010) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291709991449 · Cited by 440
The Stability and Change of Loneliness Across the Life Span: A Meta-Analysis of Longitudinal Studies
Mund, M., Freuding, M. M., Möbius, K., Horn, N., & Neyer, F. J. (2020) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868319850738 · Cited by 417
Variations in patterns of developmental transmissions in the emerging adulthood period.
Cohen, P., Kasen, S., Chen, H., Hartmark, C., & Gordon, K. (2003) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.39.4.657 · Cited by 356
Self-citationFear and panic in humans with bilateral amygdala damage
Feinstein, J. S., Buzza, C., Hurlemann, R., Follmer, R. L., Dahdaleh, N. S., Coryell, W. H., Welsh, M. J., Tranel, D., & Wemmie, J. A. (2013) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn.3323 · Cited by 350
Effective strategies for rebutting science denialism in public discussions
Schmid, P., & Betsch, C. (2019) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-019-0632-4 · Cited by 264
Scherrer, V., & Preckel, F. (2019) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654318819127 · Cited by 251
Kashdan, T. B., Disabato, D. J., Goodman, F. R., Doorley, J. D., & McKnight, P. E. (2020) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000834 · Cited by 240
Lewis, K. L., Stout, J. G., Finkelstein, N. D., Pollock, S. J., Miyake, A., Cohen, G. L., & Ito, T. A. (2017) · Psychology of Women Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0361684317720186 · Cited by 224
Raes, F., Griffith, J. W., Van der Gucht, K., & Williams, J. M. G. (2014) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-013-0202-1 · Cited by 204
Performance, incentives, and needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness: A meta-analysis
Cerasoli, C. P., Nicklin, J. M., & Nassrelgrgawi, A. S. (2016) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-016-9578-2 · Cited by 202
A refinement and validation of the Monash Canine Personality Questionnaire (MCPQ)
Ley, J. M., Bennett, P. C., & Coleman, G. J. (2009) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2008.09.009 · Cited by 153
Dispositional mindfulness moderates the relation between neuroticism and depressive symptoms
Barnhofer, T., Duggan, D. S., & Griffith, J. W. (2011) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.07.032 · Cited by 151
Feiring, C., Simon, V. A., & Cleland, C. M. (2009) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0013475 · Cited by 142
Social anxiety and self-protective communication style in close relationships
Cuming, S., & Rapee, R. M. (2010) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2009.09.010 · Cited by 130
Adolescents’ Psychosocial Well-Being One Year after the Outbreak of the COVID-19 Pandemic in Norway
von Soest, T., Kozák, M., Rodríguez-Cano, R., Fluit, S., Cortés-García, L., Ulset, V. S., Haghish, E. F., & Bakken, A. (2022) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-021-01255-w · Cited by 122
Nelis, S., Holmes, E. A., Griffith, J. W., & Raes, F. (2014) · Psychologica Belgica · doi:10.5334/pb.ag · Cited by 122
The time course of grief reactions to spousal loss: evidence from a national probability sample
Carnelley, K. B., Wortman, C. B., Bolger, N., & Burke, C. T. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.3.476 · Cited by 121
Kaat, A. J., Shui, A. M., Ghods, S. S., Farmer, C. A., Esler, A. N., Thurm, A., Georgiades, S., Kanne, S. M., Lord, C., Kim, Y. S., et al. (2021) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13242 · Cited by 116
Effects of exercise and human contact on animal welfare in a dog shelter
Menor‐Campos, D. J., Molleda‐Carbonell, J. M., & López‐Rodríguez, R. (2011) · Veterinary Record · doi:10.1136/vr.d4757 · Cited by 98
Sustained experience of emotion after loss of memory in patients with amnesia
Feinstein, J. S., Duff, M. C., & Tranel, D. (2010) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0914054107 · Cited by 96
Feelings Without Memory in Alzheimer Disease
Guzmán-Vélez, E., Feinstein, J. S., & Tranel, D. (2014) · Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology · doi:10.1097/wnn.0000000000000020 · Cited by 88
Bokemeyer, B., Hardt, J., Hüppe, D., Prenzler, A., Conrad, S., Düffelmeyer, M., Hartmann, P., Hoffstadt, M., Klugmann, T., Schmidt, C., et al. (2013) · Journal of Crohn s and Colitis · doi:10.1016/j.crohns.2012.02.014 · Cited by 87
A meta-analysis on the relationship between climate anxiety and wellbeing
Gago, T., Sargisson, R. J., & Milfont, T. L. (2024) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2024.102230 · Cited by 87
Feinstein, J. S., Khalsa, S. S., Yeh, H., Al Zoubi, O., Arevian, A. C., Wohlrab, C., Pantino, M. K., Cartmell, L. J., Simmons, W. K., Stein, M. B., et al. (2018) · Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2018.02.005 · Cited by 79
Examining the short-term anxiolytic and antidepressant effect of Floatation-REST
Feinstein, J. S., Khalsa, S. S., Yeh, H.-W., Wohlrab, C., Simmons, W. K., Stein, M. B., & Paulus, M. P. (2018) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0190292 · Cited by 79
Kochel, T. R., & Weisburd, D. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Criminology · doi:10.1007/s11292-017-9283-5 · Cited by 77
Catterson, A. D., Eldesouky, L., & John, O. P. (2017) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2016.04.004 · Cited by 53
Crawford, T. N., Cohen, P., Johnson, J. G., Sneed, J. R., & Brook, J. S. (2004) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1023/b:joyo.0000037631.87018.9d · Cited by 53
Self-citationSocial responses to expressive suppression: the role of personality judgments
Tackman, A. M., & Srivastava, S. (2016) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspp0000053 · Cited by 50
The Impact of Hot Spots Policing on Collective Efficacy: Findings from a Randomized Field Trial
Rinehart Kochel, T., & Weisburd, D. (2019) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2018.1465579 · Cited by 42
“See Cohen, Cohen, Aiken, and West (1999) for a detailed discussion of the value of POMP as a meaningful measurement unit for the social sciences.”
A randomized controlled trial of a smartphone-based application for the treatment of anxiety
Newman, M. G., Jacobson, N. C., Rackoff, G. N., Bell, M. J., & Taylor, C. B. (2021) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2020.1790688 · Cited by 37
Improving interoceptive ability through the practice of power posing: A pilot study
Weineck, F., Messner, M., Hauke, G., & Pollatos, O. (2019) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0211453 · Cited by 36
Anxiety disorders and executive functions: A three-level meta-analysis of reaction time and accuracy
Majeed, N. M., Chua, Y. J., Kothari, M., Kaur, M., Quek, F. Y. X., Ng, M. H. S., Ng, W. Q., & Hartanto, A. (2023) · Psychiatry Research Communications · doi:10.1016/j.psycom.2022.100100 · Cited by 31
Braun, T. D., Gorin, A. A., Puhl, R. M., Stone, A., Quinn, D. M., Ferrand, J., Abrantes, A. M., Unick, J., Tishler, D., & Papasavas, P. (2021) · Obesity Surgery · doi:10.1007/s11695-021-05392-z · Cited by 29
Flournoy, J. C., Pfeifer, J. H., Moore, W. E., Tackman, A. M., Masten, C. L., Mazziotta, J. C., Iacoboni, M., & Dapretto, M. (2016) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12630 · Cited by 18
EMR usability and patient safety: a national survey of physicians
Schwappach, D., Hautz, W., Krummrey, G., Pfeiffer, Y., & Ratwani, R. M. (2025) · npj Digital Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41746-025-01657-4 · Cited by 17
On the Defensive: Identity, Language, and Partisan Reactions to Political Scandal
Ekstrom, P. D., Gonzales, M. H., Williams, A. L., Weiner, E., & Aguilera, R. (2025) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672241247084 · Cited by 3
Dreisoerner, A., Goetz, V., Frohnmayer, D., Tran, U. S., Voracek, M., & Nater, U. M. (2026) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-026-02505-5 · Cited by 2
Posttraumatic Growth after Spontaneous Coronary Artery Dissection: A Mixed-Methods Study
Rogerson, M. C., Jackson, A. C., Le Grande, M. R., Hesselson, S., Iismaa, S. E., Graham, R. M., & Murphy, B. M. (2024) · Heart and Mind · doi:10.4103/hm.hm-d-24-00022
Narine, L. K., & Diaz, J. M. (2026) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci16101700
Metadata
- Authors
- Cohen, P., Cohen, J., Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G.
- Venue
- Multivariate Behavioral Research
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 1999-07
- Volume
- 34
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 315-346
- ISSN
- 0027-3171 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-7906
- OpenAlex
- W2002132341
- Cited by
- 900
- References
- 6
- FWCI
- 2.35
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
Data sources
Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.
Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).
Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.