Higher Rates of Decline for Women and Apolipoprotein E ε4 Carriers
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BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Age and the apolipoprotein E ε4 allele are well-known risk factors for Alzheimer disease, but whether female sex is also a risk factor remains controversial. It is also unclear how these risk factors affect rates of structural brain and clinical decline across the spectrum of preclinical to clinical Alzheimer disease. Our objective is to estimate the effects of apolipoprotein E ε4 and sex on age-specific rates of morphometric and clinical decline in late-onset sporadic Alzheimer disease. MATERIALS AND METHODS: With the use of linear mixed-effects models, we examined the effect of age, apolipoprotein E ε4, and sex on longitudinal brain atrophy and clinical decline among cognitively normal older individuals and individuals with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer disease (total = 688). We also evaluated the relationship between these effects and CSF biomarkers of Alzheimer disease pathology. RESULTS: Apolipoprotein E ε4 significantly accelerated rates of decline, and women in all cohorts had higher rates of decline than men. The magnitude of the sex effect on rates of decline was as large as those of ε4, yet their relationship to measures of CSF biomarkers were weaker. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that in addition to apolipoprotein E ε4 status, diagnostic and therapeutic strategies should take into account the effect of female sex on the Alzheimer disease process.
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After diagnosis, women progress faster with more rapid cognitive and functional declines.
“After diagnosis, women also progress faster with more rapid cognitive and functional declines [3–8]”
From Sex-specific DNA methylation differences in Alzheimer’s disease pathology (2021) · cites this paper as [6]
The Results (Rates of Decline in MCI; page unavailable) report faster decline for women on CDR-SB and ADAS-Cog, supporting the claim for participants with MCI. But the Results (Rates of Decline in AD; page unavailable) report no significant sex effect on any cognitive measure in participants diagnosed with Alzheimer disease. The paper therefore does not support the unqualified claim of faster cognitive and functional decline after an AD diagnosis. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSex is an important factor that contributes to clinical and biological heterogeneity in Alzheimer's disease.
“Sex is an important factor that contributes to the clinical and biological heterogeneities in Alzheimer’s disease (AD)”
From Sex-specific DNA methylation differences in Alzheimer’s disease pathology (2021) · cites this paper as [6]
Women exhibit increased global Alzheimer's neuropathological burden and greater cognitive impairment compared to men.
“However, despite their prolonged survival, even with Alzheimer’s disease [7–9], women exhibit increased global Alzheimer’s neuropathological burden and greater cognitive impairment [10–13].”
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- Authors
- Holland, D., Desikan, R. S., Dale, A. M., & McEvoy, L. K.
- Affiliations
- University of California San Diego (US)
- Venue
- American Journal of Neuroradiology
- Published
- 2013-07-04
- Volume
- 34
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 2287-2293
- ISSN
- 0195-6108 (ISSN-L)
- 1936-959X
- PMC
- PMC3894062
- OpenAlex
- W2101340648
- Cited by
- 219
- References
- 49
- Citations by year
- 2026: 22 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 26 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 11 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 13 · 2014: 3 · 2013: 2
- FWCI
- 6.40
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- American Journal of Neuroradiology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute on Aging (R01AG22381, R01AG031224, R01AG022381, K01AG029218)
- National Institute of Mental Health (P50MH081755)
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (U54NS056883, P50 NS 22343, P50NS022343)
- National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering (R01AG22381, T32EB005970)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Alzheimer's disease research and treatments
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pulmonary and Respiratory Medicine › Cancer-related cognitive impairment studies
- Keywords
- Alzheimer's disease, APOE ε4, sex differences, brain atrophy, cognitive decline, mild cognitive impairment, cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers, preclinical Alzheimer's disease, age-related decline
- MeSH terms
- Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Alzheimer Disease, Brain, Female, Heterozygote, Humans, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Risk Factors, Sensitivity and Specificity, United States, Reproducibility of Results, Biomarkers, Comorbidity, Incidence, Women's Health, Sex Distribution, Genetic Predisposition to Disease, Apolipoprotein E4, Cognitive Dysfunction
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