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Cited by 90Biofuel production and bioconversionCatalysis for Biomass ConversionThermochemical Biomass Conversion Processes

Recent Developments in Lignocellulosic Biofuels, a Renewable Source of Bioenergy

Open access
Rai, Ashutosh Kumar, Al Makishah, Naief Hamoud, Wen, Zhiqiang, Gupta, Govind, Pandit, Soumya, Prasad, Ram·2022·Fermentation
DOI 10.3390/fermentation8040161
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Abstract

Biofuel consists of non-fossil fuel derived from the organic biomass of renewable resources, including plants, animals, microorganisms, and waste. Energy derived from biofuel is known as bioenergy. The reserve of fossil fuels is now limited and continuing to decrease, while at the same time demand for energy is increasing. In order to overcome this scarcity, it is vital for human beings to transfer their dependency on fossil fuels to alternative types of fuel, including biofuels, which are effective methods of fulfilling present and future demands. The current review therefore focusses on second-generation lignocellulosic biofuels obtained from non-edible plant biomass (i.e., cellulose, lignin, hemi-celluloses, non-food material) in a more sustainable manner. The conversion of lignocellulosic feedstock is an important step during biofuel production. It is, however, important to note that, as a result of various technical restrictions, biofuel production is not presently cost efficient, thus leading to the need for improvement in the methods employed. There remain a number of challenges for the process of biofuel production, including cost effectiveness and the limitations of various technologies employed. This leads to a vital need for ongoing and enhanced research and development, to ensure market level availability of lignocellulosic biofuel.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review summarizes second-generation lignocellulosic biofuels from non-edible plant biomass, covering feedstocks, pretreatment, biochemical and thermochemical conversion, and emerging enhancement approaches. It concludes that lignocellulosic biofuels are promising sustainable alternatives but remain limited by cost, technology, and R&D funding barriers.

Key findings

  • Second-generation lignocellulosic biofuels are derived from non-edible biomass such as cellulose, lignin, and hemicelluloses; examples include cellulosic ethanol and Fischer-Tropsch fuels, and such fuels are described as carbon neutral or negative for CO₂.
  • Lignocellulosic biomass synthesized by photosynthesis exceeds 100 billion tons annually; collectable/utilizable amounts are estimated at around 1.3 billion tons/year in the United States and about 800 million tons in China, while cellulose and hemicelluloses make up about two thirds of plant dry mass.
  • Reported process conditions include dilute sulfuric acid pretreatment leading to 89.5% hemicellulose solubilization; biochemical route temperatures of 60–220 °C for pretreatment, about 50 °C for enzymatic hydrolysis, and 20–60 °C for fermentation; pyrolysis at 300–1000 °C, liquefaction at 250–370 °C, and gasification at 900–1200 °C.
  • Major challenges are production cost and economic feasibility compared with crude oil, technology limitations, and the need for funding and ongoing R&D; proposed improvements include advanced biorefineries, synthetic and systems biology, microbial community approaches, metabolic engineering, nanotechnology, and integrated approaches.

Methods

  • Narrative review of second-generation lignocellulosic biofuels; no experimental design, sample, or primary data collection is reported.
  • Synthesizes literature on feedstocks, pretreatment, biochemical and thermochemical conversion routes, and enhancement strategies, with figures adapted from Naik et al. and Dragone et al.
  • Main analysis is qualitative discussion of cited studies and reported process conditions; no systematic review protocol or meta-analysis is stated.

Limitations

  • Stated: current production of second-generation biofuels is not yet cost effective due to technical restrictions; challenges include high production cost, technology limitations, and funding for continuous R&D.
  • Stated: higher-generation biofuels are not price competitive because of production costs and technology limitations (citing Mizik et al.).
  • Evident: as a narrative review, it lacks systematic search/inclusion criteria and quantitative synthesis; the text also contains duplicated passages and typographical errors.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/fermentation8040161

Cites

96 of 96 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 58 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Premisecitation

    Petroleum products have a limited reserve stock.

    “In addition, petroleum products have a limited reserve stock, leading to increased global attention being focused on studies of biomass based energy (i.e., biofuels) [5,[7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [5,[7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20]

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  • Premisecitation

    Genome, metabolome, flux group, and computational simulation techniques of systems biology and synthetic biology provide rich tools for microbial community research.

    “The genome, metabolome, flux group, and computational simulation techniques of systems biology and synthetic biology also provide rich tools for microbial community research [85].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [85] Xie, 2014, Exploration of Natural Biomass Utilization Systems (NBUS) for advanced biofuel—From systems biology to synthetic design, Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Premisecitation

    Before enzymatic hydrolysis, pretreatment of cellulosic and related feedstocks is a highly decisive step, which can be physical, chemical, or biological.

    “It should be noted that, before the enzymatic hydrolysis, pre-treatment of the cellulosic and related feedstocks is a highly decisive step, which can be undertaken in either a physical manner, or chemically or biologically [71].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [71] Yang, 2008, Pre-treatment: The key to unlocking low cost cellulosic ethanol, Biofuel Bioprod. Biorefin. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Premisecitation

    There is considerable use of plant biomass in liquid biofuel production because plant biomass comprises cell walls composed largely of polysaccharides.

    “There is considerable use of plant biomass in liquid biofuel production, due to these comprising cell walls composed largely of polysaccharides [13,40,41].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [13] Naik, 2010, Production of first and second generation biofuels: A comprehensive review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [40] Badawy, 2021, Selection of second-generation crop for biodiesel extraction and testing its impact with nano additives on diesel engine performance and emissions, Energy source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [41] Pauly, 2008, Cell-wall carbohydrates and their modification as a resource for biofuels, Plant J. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Premisecitation

    Pretreatment of raw material is an important step during biofuel production.

    “Pretreatment of raw material is an important step during biofuel production.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [2,[48][49][50][51][52][54][55][56][57][58][59][60]

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    • Rests on an assumption: Cell walls of plants obstruct cellulosic biofuel production due to their morphological characteristics.
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 16
  • May combine two claims. 22

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    A comparison of biochemical and thermochemical conversion methods reveals differing yields in terms of feedstock, while demonstrating similarity in terms of energy.

    “A comparison of both conversation methods reveals differing yields in terms of feedstock, while demonstrating a similarity in terms of energy.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Screening microbial communities that degrade cellulose efficiently from nature, identifying their community structure, studying fermentation kinetics, analyzing the mechanism of their efficient degradation and transformation, and then simulating construction of similar systems or further strengthening their functions through transformation will provide new ideas for establishing a new cellulose降解

    “At present, screening of microbial communities that degrade cellulose efficiently from nature, identifying their community structure, studying the fermentation kinetics, analyzing the mechanism of their efficient degradation and transformation, and then simulating the construction of similar systems or further strengthening their functions through transformation will provide us with new ideas for”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [86][87][88]

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The lignocellulosic biomass that can be collected and utilized in the United States during a year is around 1.3 billion tons, and China has about 800 million tons.

    “It is estimated that the lignocellulosic biomass that can be collected and utilized in the United States during a year is around 1.3 billion tons, and China has about 800 million tons [47].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [47] Shi, 2011, China’s resources of biomass feedstock, Eng. Sci.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Sequencing techniques revealed a large variety of cellulose and hemicellulose hydrolysis related genes, enhancing understanding of cellulase richness.

    “By employing sequencing techniques, it become evident that there are a large variety of cellulose, hemicellulose hydrolysis related genes, which further enhances people's understanding of the richness of cellulase [83,84].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [83] Nimchua, 2012, Metagenomic analysis of novel lignocellulose-degrading enzymes from higher termite guts inhabiting microbes, J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [84] Rashamuse, 2017, Metagenomic mining of glycoside hydrolases from the hindgut bacterial symbionts of a termite (Trinervitermes trinervoides) and the characterization of a multimodular beta-1,4-xylanase (GH11), Biotechnol. Appl. Biochem. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Feedstock for second-generation lignocellulosic biofuels primarily consists of forms of biomass unfit for human consumption, hence it does not compete with food production.

    “Feedstock for second-generation lignocellulosic biofuels primarily consists of forms of biomass that are unfit for human consumption, hence, it does not compete with the production of food.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    High temperature liquefaction is the biomass conversion into bio-oil at 250-370°C under conditions containing more moisture.

    “High temperature liquefaction is the biomass conversion into bio-oil at 250-370 • C under conditions containing more moisture [75].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [75] Li, 2016, Impact of feedstock quality and variation on biochemical and thermochemical conversion, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Pyrolysis takes place at 300-1000°C under oxygen-free conditions.

    “The pyrolysis takes place at 300-1000 • C under oxygen-free conditions [72].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [72] Roy, 2017, Prospects for pyrolysis technologies in the bioenergy sector: A review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Potential raw materials for second-generation biofuels consist of crop residue biomass, non-food energy crops, Jatropha, wood residues, and bacteria.

    “Potential raw materials for second-generation biofuels consist of: (1) crop residue biomass; (2) non-food energy crops; (3) Jatropha; (4) wood residues; and (5) bacteria [7,22,34,[43][44][45][46].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [7,22,34,[43][44][45][46]

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Second-generation lignocellulosic biofuels are produced by employing non-edible biomass in a more sustainable manner than first-generation biofuel.

    “Second-generation lignocellulosic biofuels are produced by employing non-edible biomass (e.g., cellulose, lignin, and hemi-celluloses) in a more sustainable manner rather than first-generation biofuel.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Non-edible lignocellulosic biomass is present abundantly in the natural ecosystem.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Gasification is the conversion of biomass to CO, CO2, H2O, H2, CH4, etc., at 900-1200°C, as well as the formation of by-products tar and coke.

    “Gasification is the conversion of biomass to CO, CO 2 , H 2 O, H 2 , CH 4 , etc., at 900-1200 • C, as well as the formation of by-products tar and coke [76].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [76] Richardson, 2012, A short overview on purification and conditioning of syngas produced by biomass gasification: Catalytic strategies, process intensification and new concepts, Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Biofuel production is not presently cost efficient due to technical restrictions, requiring improvement in the methods employed.

    “It is, however, important to note that, as a result of various technical restrictions, biofuel production is not presently cost efficient, thus leading to the need for improvement in the methods employed.”
    • Also stated in: § 3. Feedstock for Second-Generation Lignocellulosic Biofuels · plain
      “It should be noted that the current production of such biofuels is not yet cost effective, due to various technical restrictions that require improvements in the methods employed [42].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [42] Raud, 2019, Potentials and challenges in lignocellulosic biofuel production technology, Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Lipase producing or lipolytic bacteria are a future hope since lipases used in transesterification reaction lead to biodiesel production.

    “Lipase producing or lipolytic bacteria are also our future hope since lipases used in the transesterification reaction further lead to biodiesel production [17].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [17] Rai, 2019, Micrococcus luteus 2030: A novel lipolytic bacterial strain isolated from local contaminated soil in Saudi Arabia, Sylwan

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Growing bioenergy crops on marginal land will lead to the production of sustainable biofuels.

    “Growing bioenergy crops on marginal land will lead to the production of sustainable biofuels.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Reaction conditions of biochemical methods are relatively mild: pretreatment temperature 60-220°C, enzyme hydrolysis temperature about 50°C, and fermentation temperature 20-60°C.

    “Generally, the reaction conditions of biochemical methods are rela-tively mild where pretreatment temperature is 60-220 • C, enzyme hydrolysis temperature is about 50 • C, and fermentation temperature is 20-60 • C [61].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [61] Lynd, 2002, Microbial Cellulose Utilization: Fundamental and Biotechnology, Microbiol. Mol. Bio. Rev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Microorganisms and different enzymes are employed to convert cellulose and hemicellulose to sugars, followed by fermentation for ethanol production.

    “Microorganisms and different enzymes are employed to convert various components of feedstocks (i.e., cellulose and hemicellulose) to sugars, followed by fermentation for ethanol production [27].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [27] Sims, 2010, An overview of second generation biofuel technologies, Bioresour. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: The major constituents of lignocellulosic feedstock consist of cellulose and hemicelluloses, about two thirds of the dry mass of plants.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The major rapid pyrolysis product is bio-oil, and bio-carbon is a major yield of slow pyrolysis.

    “According to different conditions, the major rapid pyrolysis product is bio-oil, and bio-carbon is a major yield of slow pyrolysis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [72] Roy, 2017, Prospects for pyrolysis technologies in the bioenergy sector: A review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The biofuel costs of both pathways are not fixed, and vary between companies, leading to the potential for an alternative process to benefit the industry.

    “The biofuel costs of both pathways are not fixed, and vary between companies, thus leading to the potential for an alternative process to benefit the industry.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    One major difference in biochemical and thermochemical methods is ethanol production in the biochemical method, while a range of higher hydrocarbons are synthesized by the thermochemical route.

    “One major difference in biochemical and thermochemical methods is ethanol production in the biochemical method, while a range of higher hydrocarbons are synthesized by the thermochemical route (example: jet fuel).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisereasoning

    Countries around the world are stepping up efforts to develop conversion and utilization of lignocellulose to alleviate energy crises, environmental pollution, and sustainable development.

    “Therefore, countries around the world are stepping up efforts to develop the conversion and utilization of lignocellulose, a renewable resource, to alleviate problems such as energy crises, environmental pollution, and sustainable development [48][49][50][51][52].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [48][49][50][51][52]

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given

    Second-generation biofuel production can be enhanced by growing bioenergy crops in locations unsuitable for farming food crops, leading to maximum utilization of marginal land.

    “Second-generation biofuels production can also be enhanced by the growth of bioenergy crops in locations unsuitable for the farming of food crops, leading to maximum utilization of marginal land for second-generation biofuel production.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Waste shark liver oil (WSLO) is a non-edible feedstock that can be used for making biodiesel cost-effectively.

    “Al Hatrooshi et al. [102] used waste shark liver oil (WSLO) for making biodiesel as cost effective as possible, which is also a non-edible feedstock.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [102] Eze, 2020, Production of biodiesel from waste shark liver oil for biofuel applications, Renew. Energy source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A new strategy integrating microbiome data, gene expression profiling, proteomics, and metabolomics has enabled researchers to study cell metabolism in depth and rationally design strains.

    “A new strategy to systematically integrate microbiome data, gene expression profiling, proteomics, and metabolomics has enabled researchers to study cell metabolism in depth, so that they can know that they are rationally designing strains.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [60,[97][98][99][100]

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    To avoid negative impact of first-generation biofuel production on food supplies, use of agricultural waste residues and lignocellulosic feedstock (second-generation biofuel) might be a better option in a possible short-term period.

    “Additionally, to avoid the negative impact of first-generation biofuel production on food supplies, use of agricultural waste residues and lignocellulosic feedstock (i.e., second-generation biofuel) might be a better option in a possible short-term period.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Second-generation lignocellulosic biofuels are environmentally friendly and cost effective.
    • Rests on an assumption: Use of agricultural waste residues and lignocellulosic feedstock does not have the negative impact on food supplies that first-generation biofuels have.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Multi-omics technology development has opened a new perspective for evolutionary engineering and provided a reliable target for reverse metabolic engineering.

    “The multi-omics technology development has opened up a new perspective for evolutionary engineering, and also provided a reliable target for reverse metabolic engineering [92].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [92] 2015, Yeast toxicogenomics: Lessons from a eukaryotic cell model and cell factory, Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    First-generation biofuels have direct consequences/effects on various products obtained from agricultural resources, therefore food prices might be affected.

    “Previously, the main focus was on the first-generation biofuels which have direct consequences/effects on various products obtained from agricultural resources, therefore, food prices might be affected.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Adaptive evolutionary engineering based on metabolic engineering can allow microorganisms to quickly obtain excellent phenotypes, but there are problems such as unclear gene targets and negative mutation interference.

    “Adaptive evolutionary engineering based on metabolic engineering can allow microorganisms to quickly obtain excellent phenotypes, but there are problems such as unclear gene targets and negative mutation interference [90,91].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [90] Dragosits, 2013, Adaptive laboratory evolution—Principles and applications for biotechnology, Microb. Cell Fact. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [91] Farwick, 2014, Engineering of yeast hexose transporters to transport D-xylose without inhibition by D-glucose, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Shifting to next generation lignocellulosic biofuel might become more economically feasible because first-generation biofuels include various challenges in production and use.

    “However, as first-generation biofuels include various challenges in their production and use, shifting to next generation lignocellulosic biofuel might become more economically feasible.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The first major challenge is the high cost of biofuel (bioethanol) production and its economic feasibility compared to the price of crude oil.

    “The first major challenge is the production cost, i.e., high cost of the biofuel (bioethanol) production and its economic feasibility compared to the price of crude oil [29,38,42,59].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [29] Popp, J., Harangi-Rakos, M., Gabnai, Z., Balogh, P., Antal, G., and Bai, A. (2016). Biofuels and their co-products as livestock feed: Global economic and environmental implications. Molecules, 21. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [38] Mizik, 2021, Economic and sustainability of biodiesel production- A systematic literature review, Clean Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [42] Raud, 2019, Potentials and challenges in lignocellulosic biofuel production technology, Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [59] Sinitsyn, 2021, Bioconversion of renewable plant biomass. Second-generation biofuels: Raw materials, biomass pretreatment, enzymes, processes, and cost analysis, Biochemistry

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Several researchers worldwide have reported and discussed the use of nanotechnology in enhanced biofuel production.

    “Worldwide, several researchers have reported and discussed the use of nanotechnology in the enhanced biofuel production [40,[94][95][96].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [40,[94][95][96]

      Not checked in the free run.

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  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Non-edible lignocellulosic biomass is present abundantly in the natural ecosystem.

    “It is well known that non-edible lignocellulosic biomass (such as vegetable grasses, forest residues, agricultural waste, etc.) is present abundantly in the natural ecosystem, therefore, it could be used as a feedstock for biofuel production.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Lignocellulosic biomass synthesized by photosynthesis on earth reaches more than 100 billion tons every year.

    “The lignocellulosic biomass synthesized by photosynthesis on earth reaches more than 100 billion tons every year.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The major constituents of lignocellulosic feedstock consist of cellulose and hemicelluloses, about two thirds of the dry mass of plants.

    “The major constituents of lignocellulosic feedstock consist of cellulose and hemicelluloses (i.e., about two thirds of the dry mass of plants), which are converted into sugars by means of thermochemical and biological processes.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Cell walls of plants obstruct cellulosic biofuel production due to their morphological characteristics.

    “However, it should be noted that, due to its morphological characteristics, cell walls of the plant obstruct the cellulosic biofuel production.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There are primarily two processing routes for biofuel production from lignocellulosic raw materials: biochemical and thermochemical.

    “There are primarily two processing routes followed for biofuel production from lignocellulosic raw materials: (i) Biochemical route, (ii) Thermochemical route.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Second-generation lignocellulosic biofuels are environmentally friendly and cost effective.

    “Various research around the globe is going now to obtain solutions in the form of sustainable energy sources, i.e., second-generation lignocellulosic biofuels, which would be environmentally friendly and cost effective.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Use of agricultural waste residues and lignocellulosic feedstock does not have the negative impact on food supplies that first-generation biofuels have.

    “Additionally, to avoid the negative impact of first-generation biofuel production on food supplies, use of agricultural waste residues and lignocellulosic feedstock (i.e., second-generation biofuel) might be a better option in a possible short-term period.”
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Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Research on cellulosic ethanol produced from lignocellulosic biomass has led to advancements in efficient pretreatment methods, such as steam explosion, acid hydrolysis, and enzymatic hydrolysis, and the development of robust enzymes.

    “Research on cellulosic ethanol, produced from lignocellulosic biomass has led to advancements in efficient pretreatment methods, such as steam explosion, acid hydrolysis, and enzymatic hydrolysis, and the development of robust enzymes [134, 148].”

    From Biofuel production: exploring renewable energy solutions for a greener future (2024) · cites this paper as [134]

  • The availability of sustainable and plentiful feedstocks poses a substantial obstacle to biofuel manufacturing.

    “The availability of sustainable and plentiful feedstocks poses a substantial obstacle to biofuel manufacturing.”

    From Biofuel production: exploring renewable energy solutions for a greener future (2024) · cites this paper as [134]

  • Competing demands for land, water, and resources from food production, conservation, and biofuel crops can raise concerns about land use change, deforestation, and biodiversity loss.

    “Competing demands for land, water, and resources from food production, conservation, and biofuel crops can raise concerns about land use change, deforestation, and biodiversity loss.”

    From Biofuel production: exploring renewable energy solutions for a greener future (2024) · cites this paper as [134]

  • Research is exploring the conversion of sugars into diesel-type biofuels using biological or chemical catalysts to produce biofuels with properties similar to petroleum-based diesel.

    “Sugar conversion to diesel-type biofuels: another area of research involves the conversion of sugars into diesel-type biofuels using biological or chemical catalysts. This approach aims to produce biofuels with properties similar to petroleum-based diesel.”

    From Biofuel production: exploring renewable energy solutions for a greener future (2024) · cites this paper as [134]

  • Advances in conversion technology can help biofuels become more economically viable by lowering production costs, improving output, boosting energy efficiency, and improving quality.

    “Advances in conversion technology, such as enhanced enzyme efficiency, process optimization, and production scale, can help biofuels become more economically viable. Technological innovation can assist in lowering production costs, improving output, boosting energy efficiency, and improving the quality of biofuels [43, 134].”

    From Biofuel production: exploring renewable energy solutions for a greener future (2024) · cites this paper as [134]

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Nanotechnology review is cited under the wrong number

    Minor

    The text attributes [94] to Nizami and Rehan, whose work is numbered 97 in the reference list.

  • Badawy study is cited under the wrong number

    Minor

    The text assigns Badawy et al. to [40], while the reference list places that study at 42.

  • Environmental-impact review is cited under the wrong number

    Minor

    The cited authors are listed at reference 32, not reference 30.

  • Djandja pyrolysis review is cited under the wrong number

    Minor

    The Djandja et al. review is listed as reference 75, not reference 73.

  • Patel and Shah study has a conflicting reference number

    Minor

    The body cites Patel and Shah as [100], but the main numbered reference 100 is a Bassalo et al. paper. A Patel and Shah entry is also labeled 100 later in the reference list.

  • Firouzi study is cited under the wrong number

    Minor

    The cited biomass-screening study appears at reference 46 rather than reference 44.

  • Dionísio pretreatment study is cited under the wrong number

    Minor

    The text cites [55], but the Dionísio et al. study is numbered 57 in the reference list.

7 of 7

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 4

  1. Kumar, S., Kumar, R., and Pandey, A. (2019). Biofuel production from biomass: Toward sustainable development. Current Developments in Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Elsevier.
  2. Rai, 2019, Micrococcus luteus 2030: A novel lipolytic bacterial strain isolated from local contaminated soil in Saudi Arabia, Sylwan, 163, 132
  3. Shi, 2011, China’s resources of biomass feedstock, Eng. Sci., 13, 16
  4. Raud, 2016, Second-generation bioethanol production: A review of strategies for waste valorization, Agron. Res., 15, 830

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Authors
Rai, A. K., Al Makishah, N. H., Wen, Z., Gupta, G., Pandit, S., & Prasad, R.
Affiliations
  • Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam 31441, Saudi Arabia
  • Environmental Sciences Department, Faculty of Meteorology, Environment and Arid Land Agriculture, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
  • Nanjing University of Science and Technology (CN)
  • SAGE University Bhopal (IN)
  • Sharda University (IN)
  • Mahatma Gandhi Central University (IN)
Corresponding author
Prasad, Ram
ORCID
Venue
Fermentation
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2022-04-03
Volume
8
Issue
4
Pages
161
ISSN
2311-5637 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/fermentation8040161
OpenAlex
W4225922245
Semantic Scholar
a0c5f895418d5fb29c5c7064fa2e13acccf63a7a
Cited by
90
References
96
Citations by year
2026: 16 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 12
FWCI
5.37
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Fermentation (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Biofuel production and bioconversion
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Catalysis for Biomass Conversion
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Thermochemical Biomass Conversion Processes
Keywords
lignocellulosic biofuels, second-generation biofuels, non-food biomass, cellulose, lignin, hemicellulose, bioenergy, biofuel production costs, biomass conversion, fossil fuel substitution

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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