Investigation of Biofuel as a Potential Renewable Energy Source

May combine two claims.

Algae can fix CO2, which has been proposed as a method for removing CO2 from flue gases from power plants, thus reducing GHG emissions.

“The use of algae also has other environmental advantages, as a result of their ability to fix CO 2 , which has been proposed as a method for removing CO 2 from flue gases from power plants, thus reducing GHG emissions [29][30][31].”

• cites [29][30][31]Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Biofuels can negatively impact food security and production.

“The literature suggests biofuels can negatively impact food security and production; however, this is dependent on the type of feedstock used in biofuel production.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Ethanol is currently the most widely used biofuel globally, accounting for approximately 80% of all liquid biofuel production.

“Ethanol is currently the most widely used biofuel globally, accounting for approximately 80% of all liquid biofuel production [15,16].”

• cites [15] Lee, J.W. (2013). Advanced Biofuels and Bioproducts, Springer. [1st ed.]. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [16] Popp, J., Harangi-Rakos, M., Gabnai, Z., Balogh, P., Antal, G., and Bai, A. (2016). Biofuels and their co-products as livestock feed: Global economic and environmental implications. Molecules, 21. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Advanced biofuels, derived from inedible biomass, require further research and development to reach their full commercial potential.

“Advanced biofuels, derived from inedible biomass, are heavily favoured but require further research and development to reach their full commercial potential.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

There has been little research on the economic and environmental feasibility of using algae as a biofuel feedstock, with concerns regarding its commercial-scale production.

“However, there has been little research on the economic and environmental feasibility of using algae as a biofuel feedstock, with concerns regarding its commercial-scale production.”

May combine two claims.

Replacing fossil fuels by biofuels can substantially reduce particulate matter (PM) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions.

“Replacing fossil fuels by biofuels can substantially reduce particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO) emissions, but simultaneously increase emissions of nitrogen oxides (NO x ), acetaldehyde (CH 3 CHO) and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), resulting in debates concerning the way biofuels should be implemented.”

May combine two claims.

Policies in Europe, the US and Brazil caused the biofuel industry to grow in the last decade, with biofuels now representing around 3% of transport fuels in use globally.

“The introduction of such policies, particularly in Europe, the US and Brazil, has caused the biofuel industry to grow in the last decade with biofuels now representing around 3% of transport fuels in use globally [12,13].”

• cites [12] Eisentraut, A. (2011). Technology Roadmap—Biofuels for Transport, International Energy Agency. Available online: https://fiva.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Technology-Biofuels-for-Transport.pdf.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [13] Timilsina, 2014, Biofuels in the long-run global energy supply mix for transportation, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Indonesia has the potential to become the largest biofuel manufacturer in the world.

“Indonesia has the potential to become the largest biofuel manufacturer in the world [45].”

• cites [45] Putrasari, 2016, Resources, policy and research activities of biofuel in Indonesia: A review, Energy Rep. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Global biofuel production and consumption in 2019 increased by ~3% and ~6%, respectively.

“Global biofuel production and consumption in 2019 increased by ~3% and ~6%, respectively, as displayed in Figure 3a,b.”

• cites [1] BP (2020). Statistical Review of World Energy, BP p.l.c.. [69th ed.]. Available online: https://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/energy-economics/statistical-review-of-world-energy.html.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Increasing use of biofuel across the world is likely to make up a significant proportion of global trace VOCs in the near future.

“Increasing use of biofuel across the world is likely to make up a significant proportion of global trace VOCs in the near future.”

May combine two claims.

Biodiesel has better lubricity and is less toxic than conventional diesel, making it safer and easier to handle.

“Biodiesel also has a better lubricity and is less toxic than conventional diesel, making it safer and easier to handle [57].”

• cites [57] US Department of Energy (2004). Biodiesel Handling and Use Guidelines.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Large-scale use of biofuel will result in direct emissions into the atmosphere via leakage, evaporation or incomplete combustion.

“The large-scale use of biofuel will result in direct emissions into the atmosphere via leakage, evaporation or incomplete combustion.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Second, third and fourth generation biofuels are still in the research and development phase and have not reached their full commercial potential.

“Second, third and fourth generation biofuels are commonly referred to as 'advanced biofuels' and thought to hold many advantages over first generation fuels, but, they are still in the research and development phase and have not reached their full commercial potential.”

May combine two claims.

The agricultural crops for bioethanol production on an industrial scale led to rapid and irreversible soil degradation, water scarcity, fertilizer use and pesticide application resulting in air and water pollution, and the loss of wild and agricultural biodiversity.

“The agricultural crops (e.g., sugarcane, corn) for bioethanol production on an industrial scale led to rapid and irreversible soil degradation, water scarcity, fertilizer use and pesticide application resulting in air and water pollution, and the loss of wild and agricultural biodiversity [65].”

• cites [65] Wu, 2018, Bioenergy production and environmental impacts, GeoSci. Lett. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The reduced application of advanced biofuels in industry makes projections of their future environmental impact difficult.

“Additionally, despite the strong agreement across the literature that a shift to advanced biofuels is needed, the reduced application of these fuels in industry makes projections of their future environmental impact difficult.”

May combine two claims.

Reduced food production is likely to trigger a subsequent rise in food prices, which could harm the economy and worsen food insecurity for those in poverty.

“Reduced food production is likely to trigger a subsequent rise in food prices, which could harm the economy and worsen food insecurity for those in poverty [11].”

• cites [11] Arutyunov, 2017, Energy resource of the 21st century: Problems and forecasts. Can renewable energy source replace fossil fuels?, Russ. Chem. Rev. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Reduced GHG emissions would lead to a lower global temperature, which could both increase crop yield and the quality of crops grown.

“Reduced GHG emissions would lead to a lower global temperature, which could both increase crop yield and the quality of crops grown [56].”

• cites [56] Subramaniam, 2020, Biofuels, environmental sustainability and food security: A review of 51 countries, Energy Res. Soc. Sci. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The production and end use of biofuels comes with concerns of deforestation, biodiversity loss and increased fertilizer and pesticide use.

“Biofuels also have higher production costs in the current market due to requirement of more intensive processing procedures and, as with increased agriculture of any form, the production and end use of biofuels comes with concerns of deforestation, biodiversity loss and increased fertilizer and pesticide use [60].”

• cites [60] Webb, A., and Coates, D. (2012). Biofuels and Biodiversity. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity.Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Biofuels have both positive and negative effects on the economy, environment and public health.

“Biofuels have both positive and negative effects on the economy, environment and public health [52]; many studies suggest it is crucial that governments across the globe rigorously consider these impacts prior to any future biofuel investments or implementation strategies [53,54].”

• cites [52] Mizik, 2021, Economic and sustainability of biodiesel production- A systematic literature review, Clean Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Sugarcane ethanol production in Brazil costs less than that in the US, and Brazil would benefit from using biofuel as an energy source.

“However, EROEI for the production of ethanol from sugarcane in Brazil is 5 to 10, suggesting sugarcane ethanol production in Brazil costs less than that in US [50,51] and Brazil would benefit with using biofuel as energy source.”

• cites [50] Goldemberg, 2007, Ethanol for a sustainable energy future, Science sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [51] Carpintero, 2014, A top-down approach to assess physical and ecological limits of biofuels, Energy sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Brazilian biofuel production between 2005 and 2014 was estimated at 17.4 billion L, saving 12.9 billion US dollars in fossil fuel import costs.

“For instance, Brazilian biofuel production between 2005 and 2014 was estimated at 17.4 billion L, saving 12.9 billon US dollars in fossil fuel import costs [39].”

• cites [39] Coelho, 2017, History, evolution and environmental impact of biodiesel in Brazil: A review, Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

The best approach may be a combination of resources to manage the increasing global demand.

“Instead of solely relying on one generation of biofuel, the best approach may be a combination of resources to manage the increasing global demand [48].”

• cites [48] Lee, 2013, From first- to third-generation biofuels: Challenges of producing a commodity from a biomass of increasing complexity, Anim. Front. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Challenges to commercialize the large-scale production of advanced biofuels include high cost of production and the need for improvement of current conversion technologies.

“However, there are challenges to commercialize the large-scale production of these advanced biofuels as the cost of production is high and the performance of current conversion technologies requires improvement [47,68].”

• cites [47] Aro, 2016, From first generation biofuels to advanced solar biofuels, Ambio sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [68] Milano, 2016, Microalgae biofuels as an alternative to fossil fuel for power generation, Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Additional benefits have been recognized when using microalgae as a feedstock, such as faster biomass production, high oil content and a capability to grow throughout the year in both natural and artificial environments.

“Additional benefits have been recognized when using microalgae as a feedstock, such as faster biomass production, high oil content and a capability to grow throughout the year in both natural and artificial environments [67].”

• cites [67] Sharma, 2020, Sustainable environmental management and related biofuel technologies, J. Environ. Manag. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A considerable amount of research on biofuels as a renewable energy source is inconclusive and contradictory.

“A considerable amount of research on biofuels as a renewable energy source is inconclusive and contradictory [38][39][40][41].”

• cites [38][39][40][41]Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Recent studies highlighted negative consequences of expanding first generation biofuel production further and argue for a greater effort on the production of advanced biofuels.

“Despite first generation biofuels being successfully implemented globally, recent studies highlighted negative consequences of expanding their production further and argue for a greater effort on the production of advanced biofuels [46][47][48].”

• cites [46][47][48]Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

A shift towards biofuel production would allow countries without large crude oil reserves to reduce both their dependence on fossil fuels and their import costs.

“In addition, not all countries have large crude oil reserves so a shift towards biofuel production would allow countries to reduce both their dependence on fossil fuels and, consequently, their import costs.”

May combine two claims.

Compared with diesel, biodiesel has a lower calorific value, higher NOx emissions, higher copper strip corrosion and fuel pumping difficulty.

“In spite of these benefits, several problems stand in the way of using biofuels as a replacement to fossil fuels, for example, comparing with diesel, biodiesel has a lower calorific value, higher NO x emissions, higher copper strip corrosion and fuel pumping difficulty [58,59].”

• cites [58] Agarwal, 2006, Experimental investigation of control of NOx emissions in biodiesel-fueled compression ignition engine, Renew. Energy sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [59] Demirbas, 2009, Progress and recent trends in biodiesel fuels, Energy Conv. Manag. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Biofuels are often sold in the global market as blends with fossil fuels, in order to be compatible with conventional vehicle engines and reduce the need for additives.

“Biofuels are often sold in the global market as blends with fossil fuels, in order to be compatible with conventional vehicle engines and reduce the need for additives [43].”

• cites [43] Yusoff, 2020, Sustainability of Palm biodiesel in transportation: A review on biofuel standard, policy and international collaboration between Malaysia and Colombia, BioEnergy Res. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Biofuel production as an alternative to natural fossil fuel could destroy the natural ecosystem and violate the equilibrium of global biosphere processes.

“Biofuel production as an alternative of natural fossil fuel could destroy the natural ecosystem and violate the equilibrium of global biosphere processes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Brazil has successfully implemented public policies to increase biofuel consumption and in turn improve air quality.

“Brazil has successfully implemented public policies to increase biofuel consumption and in turn improve air quality.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

H-abstraction reaction can occur at different reaction sites along ethanol.

“Initially, this takes place via a H-abstraction reaction which can occur at different reaction sites along ethanol [96].”

• cites [96] Atkinson, 2006, IUPAC Subcommittee. Evaluated kinetic and photochemical data for atmospheric chemistry: Volume II- gas phase reactions of organic species, Atmos. Chem. Phys. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Adding up all the biodiesel consumed in Brazil since 2008, the GHG avoided emissions have already reached 21.8 million tons of CO2, equivalent to nearly 158 million trees in an area corresponding to 144 thousand football fields.

“a recent report released by the Brazilian Department of Agriculture Livestock Supply states that by “adding up all the biodiesel consumed in Brazil since 2008, the GHG avoided emissions have already reached 21.8 million tons of CO 2 , which is equivalent to nearly 158 million trees in an area corresponding to 144 thousand football fields” [39,76].”

• cites [39] Coelho, 2017, History, evolution and environmental impact of biodiesel in Brazil: A review, Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [76] Brazil Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Supply (2021, August 30). Benefícios Ambientais da Produção e do USO do Biodiesel. Brazil, Available online: https://ubrabio.com.br/sites/1800/1891/PDFs/BenefAciosAmbientaisdaProduAAoeUsodoBiod.pdf.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Initial degradation of ethanol involves direct breakage of the C-C bond forming the hydroxymethyl radical, which reacts with oxygen or decomposes to produce formaldehyde.

“The initial degradation of ethanol involves the direct breakage of the C-C bond forming the hydroxymethyl radical, which either reacts with oxygen or decomposes in the atmosphere, to produce formaldehyde [95].”

• cites [95] Zhu, 2013, Effects of ethanol-biodiesel blend and diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) on particulate and unregulated emissions, Fuel sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Although biofuels are still producing CO2, the carbon footprint is smaller as biomass feedstocks act as a carbon sink by absorbing CO2 for photosynthesis during crop growth.

“Although biofuels are still producing CO 2 , the carbon footprint is smaller as biomass feedstocks act as a carbon sink by absorbing CO 2 for photosynthesis during crop growth [40,75].”

• cites [40] Muhammad, 2018, Biofuels as the starring substitute to fossil fuels, Pet. Sci. Eng.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [75] Porqueras, 2012, Biofuels and CO2 neutrality: An opportunity, Biofuels sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Delaying fuel injection, addition of water in biofuel blends, and medium engine speed are potential ways to decrease NOx pollution.

“For instance, delaying fuel injection, addition of water in biofuel blends, and a medium engine speed are all potential ways to decrease NO x pollution [53,89,91].”

• cites [53] AQEG (2021, August 30). Road Transport Biofuels: Impact on UK Air Quality, Available online: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/road-transportbiofuels-impact-on-uk-air-quality.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [89] Tan, 2017, Engine performance and emissions characteristics of a diesel engine fueled with diesel-biodiesel-bioethanol emulsions, Energy Convers. Manag. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [91] Gharehghani, 2019, Simulataneous reduction of CO and NOx emissions as well as fuel consumption by using water and nano particles in diesel-biodiesel blend, J. Clean. Prod. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The higher oxygen content of ethanol and biodiesel compared with petrol and diesel leads to a more complete combustion and hence a decrease in particulate content and exhaust gas.

“The main explanation for these reduced emissions within literature is that the higher oxygen content of ethanol and biodiesel, compared with petrol and diesel [73,74], leads to a more complete combustion and hence a decrease in particulate content and exhaust gas [11].”

• cites [73] Varol, 2014, Comparison of methanol, ethanol, or n-butanol blending with unleaded gasoline on exhaust emissions of an SI engine. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Util. Environ. Eff.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [74] Giakoumis, 2014, Assessment of NOx emissions during transient diesel engine operation with biodiesel blends, J. Energy Eng. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [11] Arutyunov, 2017, Energy resource of the 21st century: Problems and forecasts. Can renewable energy source replace fossil fuels?, Russ. Chem. Rev. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The inconsistency between literature on biofuel emissions is understandable due to complexity of combustion and variation between studies such as engine type, vehicle age, fuel injection strategy and other conditions.

“This inconsistency between literature is understandable due to the complexity of combustion and the variation between different studies such as: engine type, vehicle age, fuel injection strategy and other conditions, which influence emissions [53,90].”

• cites [53] AQEG (2021, August 30). Road Transport Biofuels: Impact on UK Air Quality, Available online: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/road-transportbiofuels-impact-on-uk-air-quality.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [90] Tabatabaei, 2018, A comprehensive review on the environmental impacts of diesel/biodiesel additives, Energy Convers. Manag. sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Approximately 85% of the abstraction occurs at the α-site of ethanol.

“Approximately 85% of the abstraction occurs at the α-site of ethanol.”

• cites [96] Atkinson, 2006, IUPAC Subcommittee. Evaluated kinetic and photochemical data for atmospheric chemistry: Volume II- gas phase reactions of organic species, Atmos. Chem. Phys. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Reaction with OH involves H-abstraction from the carbonyl carbon to form a peroxyacetyl radical which can react with NO2 to produce PAN.

“Reaction with OH involves H-abstraction from the carbonyl carbon to form a peroxyacetyl radical which can go on to react with NO 2 and produce PAN [98,99].”

• cites [98] Tanner, 1988, Atmospheric chemistry of aldehydes: Enhanced peroxyacetyl nitrate formation from ethanol-fueled vehicular emissions, Environ. Sci. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [99] Gaffney, 1997, Potential air quality effects of using ethanol-gasoline fuel blends: A field study in Albuquerque, New Mexico, Environ. Sci. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Short-term O3 exposure is strongly associated with mortality across the world.

“with many also reporting a strong association with mortality across the world [86][87][88].”

• cites [86][87][88]Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

PAN is a key contributor to photochemical smog, typically in warm summer climates, causing eye irritation and respiratory issues.

“PAN is a key contributor to photochemical smog, typically in warm summer climates, which consequently causes eye irritation and respiratory issues [53].”

• cites [53] AQEG (2021, August 30). Road Transport Biofuels: Impact on UK Air Quality, Available online: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/road-transportbiofuels-impact-on-uk-air-quality.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

According to the Air Transport Action Group, a key part of the aviation sector's carbon-neutral growth strategy is the use of low-carbon, sustainable aviation fuels, which have bio-based components.

“According to the Air Transport Action Group, a key part of the aviation sector's carbon-neutral growth strategy is the use of low-carbon, sustainable aviation fuels, which have bio-based components [117].”

• cites [117] Kousoulidou, 2016, Biofuels in aviation: Fuel demand and CO2 emissions evolution in Europe toward 2030, Transp. Res. Part. D Transp. Environ. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

An example of a potential environmental barrier could be the implications of land-use changes which may be required to grow sufficient amounts of biofuel feedstock to meet the demand.

“An example of a potential environmental barrier could be the implications of land-use changes which may be required to grow sufficient amounts of biofuel feedstock to meet the demand.”

May combine two claims.

A study by Jacobson showed that such a blend causes elevations in PAN and increases ozone-related mortality.

“A study undertaken by Jacobson [104] also showed that such a blend causes elevations in the levels of PAN, whilst also increasing ozone-related mortality.”

• cites [104] Jacobson, 2007, Effects of ethanol (E85) versus gasoline vehicles on cancer and mortality in the United States, Environ. Sci. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Investigation into biomass feedstocks has presented issues associated with preparation, as many feedstocks are highly oxygenated, while jet fuels are required to be fully deoxygenated hydrocarbons.

“Investigation into biomass feedstocks has presented issues associated with preparation, as many feedstocks are highly oxygenated, while jet fuels are required to be fully deoxygenated hydrocarbons.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Before the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis, the syngas must be purified and adjusted to ensure the syngas ratios of CO and H2 are appropriate for FT.

“Before the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis, the syngas must be purified and adjusted to ensure the syngas ratios of CO and H 2 are appropriate for FT.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Aviation fuel consumption currently accounts for 3% of the total global fossil fuels used.

“Consequently, aviation fuel consumption currently accounts for 3% of the total global fossil fuels used [116].”

• cites [116] Lee, 2010, Can we accelerate the improvement of energy efficiency in aircraft systems?, Energy Convers. Manag. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Biofuels must therefore involve chemical transformation to selectively remove oxygen and structural adjustments.

“Biofuels must therefore involve chemical transformation to selectively remove oxygen and structural adjustments.”

May combine two claims.

Other areas with higher ethanol mixing ratios include south-eastern U.S.A., East Asia (China) and South Asia (India).

“Other areas of the globe with higher ethanol mixing ratios include the south-eastern U.S.A., East Asia (areas of China) and South Asia (around India).”

• cites [102] Khan, 2017, An estimate of the global budget and distribution of ethanol using a global 3-D atmospheric chemistry transport model STOCHEM-CRI, Trans. Royal Soc. S. Afr. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

This application of biofuels is helping to remove harmful waste gases such as CO2, whilst simultaneously producing electricity which could later be used to power battery-driven vehicles in a non-polluting way.

“Therefore, this application of biofuels is helping to remove harmful waste gases such as CO 2 , whilst simultaneously producing electricity which could later be used to power battery-driven vehicles in a non-polluting way [113].”

• cites [113] Consoli, C. (2019). Bioenergy and Carbon Capture Storage, Global CCS Institute. Available online: http://www.globalccsinstitute.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/BECCS-Perspective_FINAL_PDF.pdf.Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Many airlines are currently involved in research efforts to enable the implementation of these biofuels and reduce the carbon footprint of aviation.

“Many airlines are currently involved in research efforts to enable the implementation of these biofuels and reduce the carbon footprint of aviation [118].”

• cites [118] Mohsin, 2017, Assessment of Biofuels in Aviation Industry for Environmental Sustainability, Chem. Eng. Trans.Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Once synthesised, the crude product is processed, involving both cracking and separation techniques.

“Once synthesised, the crude product is processed, which involving both cracking and separation techniques [123].”

• cites [123] Blakey, 2011, Aviation gas turbine alternative fuels: A review, Proc. Combust. Inst. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Biofuel use in road transportation alone is unlikely to reduce GHG emissions sufficiently to achieve the Paris Agreement climate target, hence a wider application across the transport sector is necessary.

“Biofuel use in road transportation alone is unlikely to reduce GHG emissions sufficiently to achieve the Paris Agreement climate target, hence a wider application across the transport sector is necessary.”

May combine two claims.

Although this technique is well-developed, the specific composition of the gas stream is hard to control as impurities may be present in the feedstock, these include N2, chlorine (Cl) and tar.

“Although this technique is well-developed, the specific composition of the gas stream is hard to control as impurities may be present in the feedstock, these include N 2 , chlorine (Cl) and tar.”

May combine two claims.

The demand for conventional aviation fuels will continue to grow to 860 Mt/year by 2050, which is more than 4 times the demand observed in 2010.

“It is currently estimated that the demand for conventional aviation fuels (CAF), such as Jet A and Jet A-1 (comprise of 20% naphthalene, 20% paraffins, 40% iso-paraffins and 20% aromatic compounds from the crude distillate), will continue to grow to 860 Mt/year by 2050, which is more than 4 times the demand observed in 2010 [115].”

• cites [115] Chiaramonti, 2019, Sustainable Aviation Fuels: The challenge of decarbonization, Energy Procedia sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The aviation industry emits approximately 700 million tonnes of CO2 eq and is accountable for almost 12% of transportation emissions worldwide.

“The aviation industry emits approximately 700 million tonnes of CO 2 eq and is accountable for almost 12% of transportation emissions worldwide [114].”

• cites [114] Chuck, C. (2016). Biofuels for Aviation: Feedbacks, Technology and Implementation, Academic Press.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

This increases the cost and time of this process, which poses a problem for commercial-scale implementation.

“This increases the cost and time of this process, which poses a problem for commercial-scale implementation [120].”

• cites [120] Díaz-Pérez, M.A., and Serrano-Ruiz, J.C. (2020). Catalytic production of jet fuels from biomass. Molecules, 25. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The FT reaction has been extensively studied, and it has been shown FT-SPK produced contains a high concentration of long chain paraffins, both branched and unbranched, which are produced from syngas in the presence of iron or cobalt catalysts.

“The FT reaction has been extensively studied, and it has been shown FT-SPK produced contains a high concentration of long chain paraffins, both branched and unbranched, which are produced from syngas in the presence of iron or cobalt catalysts.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Palm oil and many crops obtained from deforestation are not encouraged as these cause further environmental damage in different sectors.

“Palm oil and many crops obtained from deforestation are not encouraged as these cause further environmental damage in different sectors [120].”

• cites [120] Díaz-Pérez, M.A., and Serrano-Ruiz, J.C. (2020). Catalytic production of jet fuels from biomass. Molecules, 25. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Jet fuel alternatives must be utilised at low temperatures and display high energy density to supply the energetic demand of long-haul flights, properties which biodiesels do not display.

“Jet fuel alternatives (e.g., fuels derived from biomass) must also be utilised at low temperatures and also display high energy density to supply the energetic demand of long-haul flights, properties which biodiesels do not display [120].”

• cites [120] Díaz-Pérez, M.A., and Serrano-Ruiz, J.C. (2020). Catalytic production of jet fuels from biomass. Molecules, 25. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Photolysis yields HCO and CH3 radicals, where HCO instantly forms HO2 radicals on reaction with O2.

“Photolysis yields HCO and CH 3 radicals, where HCO instantly forms HO 2 radicals on reaction with O 2 .”

• cites [100] Khan, 2015, The global atmospheric budget and distribution of acetone using the 3-D global model, STOCHEM-CRI, Atmos. Environ. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [101] Khan, 2017, Global budget and distribution of peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) for present and preindustrial scenarios, Int. J. Earth Environ. Sci. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [102] Khan, 2017, An estimate of the global budget and distribution of ethanol using a global 3-D atmospheric chemistry transport model STOCHEM-CRI, Trans. Royal Soc. S. Afr. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

In 2018, aviation biofuel production was around 15 million L, which accounted for under 0.1% of total aviation fuel consumption.

“In 2018, aviation biofuel production was around 15 million L, which accounted for under 0.1% of total aviation fuel consumption [119].”

• cites [119] Le Feuvre, P. (2019). Are Aviation Biofuels Ready for Take-Off?, IEA. Available online: https://www.iea.org/commentaries/are-aviation-biofuels-ready-for-take-off.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The gasification process requires conversion of biomass feedstock lignocellulose into syngas under high-temperature conditions while controlling the oxidant species present.

“The gasification process requires conversion of biomass feedstock lignocellulose into syngas under high-temperature conditions while controlling the oxidant species present [120].”

• cites [120] Díaz-Pérez, M.A., and Serrano-Ruiz, J.C. (2020). Catalytic production of jet fuels from biomass. Molecules, 25. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Currently, there are many alternative fuels suggested that could help decarbonise the aviation industry and thus reduce the environmental impact of the sector.

“Currently, there are many alternative fuels suggested that could help decarbonise the aviation industry and thus reduce the environmental impact of the sector [120].”

• cites [120] Díaz-Pérez, M.A., and Serrano-Ruiz, J.C. (2020). Catalytic production of jet fuels from biomass. Molecules, 25. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Khan et al. showed that an increased emission flux (~11.5 Tg/year) of ethanol as a biofuel and from vegetation can cause an increment of acetaldehyde by up to 30% in areas such as Brazil, Australia and Indonesia, which led to an increase in PAN (by up to 3%) over the ocean near to acetaldehyde source regions.

“Khan et al. [102] showed that an increased emission flux (~11.5 Tg/year) of ethanol as a biofuel and from vegetation can cause an increment of acetaldehyde by up to 30% in areas such as Brazil, Australia and Indonesia (Figure 5a) which led to an increase in PAN (by up to 3%) over the ocean near to acetaldehyde source regions (Figure 5b).”

• cites [102] Khan, 2017, An estimate of the global budget and distribution of ethanol using a global 3-D atmospheric chemistry transport model STOCHEM-CRI, Trans. Royal Soc. S. Afr. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The Drax power station in the U.K. has recently converted four of its six generating units from coal to wood pellets and operates carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies alongside power generation.

“For example, the Drax power station in the U.K. has recently converted four of its six generating units from coal to wood pellets and operates carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies alongside power generation [112].”

• cites [112] Clayton, 2019, Drax group’s bioenergy CCS (BECCS) project, Greenh. Gas. Sci. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

To be sustainable, BAF must be produced from sustainable feedstocks.

“To be sustainable, BAF must be produced from sustainable feedstocks.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Biomass Alternative Fuels (BAF) are synthetic paraffinic kerosene's (SPK) which can be blended with CAF.

“Biomass Alternative Fuels (BAF) are synthetic paraffinic kerosene's (SPK) which can be blended with CAF [121].”

• cites [121] Doliente, 2020, Bio-aviation fuel: A comprehensive review and analysis of the supply chain components, Front. Energy Res. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Snåre et al. further investigated this catalytic reactivity, identifying a greater variety of catalysts that could be used for deoxygenation processes, including Pd/C.

“Snåre et al. [130] further investigated this catalytic reactivity, identifying a greater variety of catalysts that could be used for deoxygenation processes, including Pd/C.”

• cites [130] Murzin, 2006, Heterogeneous catalytic deoxygenation of stearic acid for production of biodiesel, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

As algae are known to have a high yield production and function at low water and fertilizer concentrations, this could be a cost-effective solution.

“As algae are known to have a high yield production and function at low water and fertilizer concentrations, this could be a cost-effective solution [137].”

• cites [137] Fortier, 2014, Life cycle assessment of bio-jet fuel from hydrothermal liquefaction of microalgae, Appl. Energy sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Although often camelina crops are grown in rotation with wheat crops, where land would otherwise be left to refresh itself, this still presents a problem as the feedstock would only be available seasonally.

“Although often camelina crops are grown in rotation with wheat crops, where land would otherwise be left to refresh itself, this still presents a problem as the feedstock would only be available seasonally [132].”

• cites [132] Ruiz, 2013, Biodiesel from Camelina sativa: A comprehensive characterization, Fuel sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

This employed the use of Grubb's catalyst for the alkene cross-metathesis and Pt/ZSM-22 catalyst for hydrodeoxygenation.

“This employed the use of Grubb's catalyst for the alkene cross-metathesis and Pt/ZSM-22 catalyst for hydrodeoxygenation.”

• cites [131] Wang, 2018, Highly efficient conversion of plant oil to bio-aviation fuel and valuable chemicals by combination of enzymatic transesterification, olefin cross-metathesis, and hydrotreating, Biotechnol. Biofuels sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Currently, only iso-butanol and ethanol are used in ATJ-SPK processes, but future development hopes to incorporate all C2-C5 alcohols in the production process.

“Currently, only iso-butanol and ethanol are used in ATJ-SPK processes, but, future development hopes to incorporate all C2-C5 alcohols in the production process [122].”

• cites [122] Yang, 2019, An overview on performance characteristics of bio-jet fuels, Fuel sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

These free fatty acid chains must be catalytically deoxygenated through hydrodeoxygenation reactions or decarboxylation reactions resulting in long linear alkanes.

“These free fatty acid chains must be catalytically deoxygenated through hydrodeoxygenation reactions or decarboxylation reactions resulting in long linear alkanes, as seen in Scheme 2”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

This occurred in the presence of either N2 or H2 providing less stringent reactive components with a greater extent of carboxylation under N2 atmosphere.

“This occurred in the presence of either N 2 or H 2 providing less stringent reactive components with a greater extent of carboxylation under N 2 atmosphere.”

• cites [129] Takemura, 1985, Catalytic decarboxylation of benzoic acid, Ind. Eng. Chem. Prod. Res. Dev. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Development into these conditions could increase the number of aromatic components produced this way.

“Development into these conditions could increase the number of aromatic components produced this way [135].”

• cites [135] Verma, 2015, Diesel and aviation kerosene with desired aromatics from hydroprocessing of Jatropha oil over hydrogenation catalysts supported on hierarchical mesoporous SAPO-11, Appl. Catal. A sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

β-farnesene is typically produced from sugarcane and lignocellulosic biomass.

“The structure of β-farnesene and is displayed in Scheme 3 and typically is produced from sugarcane and lignocellulosic biomass.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Several reports have detailed the potential use of waste cooking oils in the formation of alternative jet fuels.

“As environmental conscience has increased, several reports have detailed the potential use of waste cooking oils in the formation of alternative jet fuels.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Research conducted by Wang et al. reported an efficient 4-step conversion method for synthesising HEFA-SPK.

“Research conducted by Wang et al. [131] reported an efficient 4-step conversion method for synthesising HEFA-SPK.”

• cites [131] Wang, 2018, Highly efficient conversion of plant oil to bio-aviation fuel and valuable chemicals by combination of enzymatic transesterification, olefin cross-metathesis, and hydrotreating, Biotechnol. Biofuels sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

These steps include enzyme transesterification, catalytic transfer hydrogenation, alkene cross-metathesis and catalytic hydrodeoxygenation.

“These steps include enzyme transesterification, catalytic transfer hydrogenation, alkene cross-metathesis and catalytic hydrodeoxygenation.”

• cites [131] Wang, 2018, Highly efficient conversion of plant oil to bio-aviation fuel and valuable chemicals by combination of enzymatic transesterification, olefin cross-metathesis, and hydrotreating, Biotechnol. Biofuels sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The formation of aromatic paraffins is important for use in jet fuels as they contribute to ensuring valves in engine systems are sealed properly by promoting swelling of the valve.

“The formation of aromatic paraffins is important for use in jet fuels as they contribute to ensuring valves in engine systems are sealed properly by promoting swelling of the valve [120].”

• cites [120] Díaz-Pérez, M.A., and Serrano-Ruiz, J.C. (2020). Catalytic production of jet fuels from biomass. Molecules, 25. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

This method was highly efficient and provided a more economically feasible solution compared with previously reported hydrotreatment processes.

“This method was highly efficient and provided a more economically feasible solution compared with previously reported hydrotreatment processes.”

• cites [131] Wang, 2018, Highly efficient conversion of plant oil to bio-aviation fuel and valuable chemicals by combination of enzymatic transesterification, olefin cross-metathesis, and hydrotreating, Biotechnol. Biofuels sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The literature has reported promising results from the vegetable oils processed into jet fuels, with many reports indicating these fuels have been already blended with CAF to power commercial jets.

“The literature has reported promising results from the vegetable oils processed into jet fuels, with many reports indicating these fuels have been already blended with CAF to power commercial jets [120].”

• cites [120] Díaz-Pérez, M.A., and Serrano-Ruiz, J.C. (2020). Catalytic production of jet fuels from biomass. Molecules, 25. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Takemura et al. reported Ni and Pd catalysts with aluminium supports were useful for forming aromatic paraffins, particularly through decarboxylation of benzoic acid in a batch autoclave.

“Takemura et al. [129] reported Ni and Pd catalysts with aluminium supports were useful for forming aromatic paraffins, particularly through decarboxylation of benzoic acid in a batch autoclave.”

• cites [129] Takemura, 1985, Catalytic decarboxylation of benzoic acid, Ind. Eng. Chem. Prod. Res. Dev. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Typically, highly oxygenated sugar molecules, containing OH, CO and COOH groups, have a carbon number of 6.

“Typically, highly oxygenated sugar molecules, containing OH, CO and COOH groups, have a carbon number of 6.”

May combine two claims.

This process uses an expensive feedstock and the production of the fuel is a high energy process, implantation of HFS-SIP fuels on a commercial scale would be extremely costly.

“Nevertheless, this process uses an expensive feedstock and the production of the fuel is a high energy process, implantation of HFS-SIP fuels on a commercial scale would be extremely costly [138].”

• cites [138] Bauen, 2020, Sustainable aviation fuels, Johns. Matthey Technol. Rev. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

Reports have recommended that the cost of production could be reduced if propane, produced during the hydroprocessing stage, was sold back to for use in industry.

“Additionally, reports have recommended that the cost of production could be reduced if propane, produced during the hydroprocessing stage, was sold back to for use in industry [136].”

• cites [136] Caballero, 2017, Microbial alkane production for jet fuel industry: Motivation, state of the art and perspectives, Microb. Biotechnol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Further research has been conducted recently in processing fatty acids into aromatics and cycloalkanes, components also present in CAF.

“Further research has been conducted recently in processing fatty acids into aromatics and cycloalkanes, components also present in CAF.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The abundance of catalysts available for this process give the potential for mass implementation of these routes within the biofuel aviation industry.

“The abundance of catalysts available for this process give the potential for mass implementation of these routes within the biofuel aviation industry.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Conversion of alcohol to jet synthetic paraffinic kerosene involves three key steps involving dehydration to remove heteroatom oxygen to produce alkenes, oligomerisation to increase the carbon chain length of the alkenes and finally hydrogenation to produce the unsaturated long chain alkanes.

“Conversion of alcohol to jet synthetic paraffinic kerosene involves three key steps involving dehydration to remove heteroatom oxygen to produce alkenes, oligomerisation to increase the carbon chain length of the alkenes and finally hydrogenation to produce the unsaturated long chain alkanes [125].”

• cites [125] 2017, A review on the production processes of renewable jet fuel, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Both ethanol and iso-butanol are easily dehydrated in the presence of acid catalysts such as silica-alumina and at moderate temperatures, e.g., 250 °C and 325 °C, respectively.

“Both ethanol and iso-butanol are easily dehydrated in the presence of acid catalysts such as silica-alumina and at moderate temperatures, e.g., 250 °C and 325 °C, respectively [140].”

• cites [140] Hu, 2010, Selective dehydration of bio-ethanol to ethylene catalyzed by lanthanum-phosphorous-modified HZSM-5: Influence of the fusel, Biotechnol. J. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Sugar molecules have also been reported as potential feedstocks for production of alternative fuels.

“Sugar molecules have also been reported as potential feedstocks for production of alternative fuels.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A wide range of vegetable oil feedstocks have been reported, including camelina, canola rapeseed, soybean and jatropha oils, although production of jet fuels utilising these oils is controversial as the production is not entirely sustainable.

“Furthermore, a wide range of vegetable oil feedstocks have been reported, these include camelina, canola rapeseed, soybean and jatropha oils, although production of jet fuels utilising these oils is controversial as the production is not entirely sustainable [120].”

• cites [120] Díaz-Pérez, M.A., and Serrano-Ruiz, J.C. (2020). Catalytic production of jet fuels from biomass. Molecules, 25. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

As a non-edible crop, camelina possesses a high oil content, but growing this crop purely for oil uses poses a question regarding feedstock availability and land use concerns.

“As a non-edible crop, camelina possesses a high oil content, but, growing this crop purely for oil uses poses a question regarding feedstock availability and land use concerns [120].”

• cites [120] Díaz-Pérez, M.A., and Serrano-Ruiz, J.C. (2020). Catalytic production of jet fuels from biomass. Molecules, 25. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Hydrogenation of β-farnesene produces farnesane which is an alkane which has displayed potential as a high energy density alternative fuel option.

“Hydrogenation of β-farnesene produces farnesane which is an alkane which has displayed potential as a high energy density alternative fuel option [139].”

• cites [139] Liu, 2018, Renewable production of high density jet fuel precursor sesquiterpenes from Escherichia coli, Biotechnol. Biofuels sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Extraction of sugars from non-edible lignocellulosic feedstocks requires several processing stages and is costly because the lignin structure must be weakened before extraction.

“Extraction of sugars from non-edible feedstocks, namely lignocellulose, require several stages of processing and poses a problem as the structure of the lignin surrounding the cellulose must be weakened before extraction which is a costly process [125].”

• cites [125] 2017, A review on the production processes of renewable jet fuel, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Iso-butanol has lower water absorption and higher energy density than ethanol, but its energy density is still much lower than CAF.

“iso-butanol has a lower water absorption and higher energy density than ethanol, however, it is still much lower than CAF [142].”

• cites [142] Wang, W., Tao, L., Markham, J., Zhang, Y., Tan, E., Batan, L., Biddy, M., Wang, W.-C., Tao, L., and Zhang, Y. (2021, August 30). Review of Biojet Fuel Conversion Technologies, Available online: https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy16osti/66291.pdf.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The impact of aviation biofuels on other environmental factors such as biodiversity and air quality remains uncertain.

“However, the impact of aviation biofuels on other environmental factors, such as biodiversity and air quality remains uncertain and requires further investigation.”

May combine two claims.

Ethanol cannot be used directly in aircraft engines due to high volatility, high water absorption, and much lower energy density than CAF.

“Ethanol, in particular, cannot be used directly in aircraft engines due to its high volatility, high water absorption and a much lower energy density than CAF”

• cites [142] Wang, W., Tao, L., Markham, J., Zhang, Y., Tan, E., Batan, L., Biddy, M., Wang, W.-C., Tao, L., and Zhang, Y. (2021, August 30). Review of Biojet Fuel Conversion Technologies, Available online: https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy16osti/66291.pdf.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

HFS-SIP fuels provide a simple direct sugar-to-hydrocarbon process employing microorganisms and avoiding multi-step processing.

“HFS-SIP fuels provide a simple direct sugar-to-hydrocarbon process employing microorganisms and avoiding multi-step processing.”

May combine two claims.

Use of i-butanol as a global biofuel will result in significant emissions into the atmosphere, and its subsequent transport and degradation are likely to impact atmospheric composition.

“Thus, the use of i-butanol as a global biofuel will result in significant emissions into the atmosphere, with its subsequent transport and degradation likely to impact atmospheric composition.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The success of biofuels as a renewable energy source can be determined by factors such as geographical region, climate, economic infrastructure, and feedstock used.

“A variety of factors can determine the success of biofuels as a renewable energy source, such as the geographical region and climate, economic infrastructure and the feedstock used in biofuel production.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Advanced biofuels, particularly algae-derived, have a strong capability to replace fossil fuels without causing food insecurity and biodiversity loss.

“Advanced biofuels, particularly those derived from algae, have a strong capability to replace fossil fuels without giving rise to negative effects such as food insecurity and biodiversity loss.”

May combine two claims.

The OH radical reaction with i-butanol has competing pathways leading to different stable end products and potentially different impacts on atmospheric composition.

“There are a number of competing pathways by which this reaction can proceed, thus leading to the formation of different stable end product(s) (see Figure 6) and potentially, different impacts on atmospheric composition.”

• cites [143] McGillen, 2013, Gas-Phase Rate Coefficients for the OH plus n-, i-, s- and t-Butanol Reactions Measured Between 220 and 380 K: Non-Arrhenius Behaviour and Site-Specific Reactivity, J. Phys. Chem. A sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [144] McGillen, 2016, Experimentally Determined Site-Specific Reactivity of the Gas-Phase OH and Cl plus i-Butanol Reactions Between 251 and 340 K, J. Phys. Chem. A sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Extraction of sugars from non-edible feedstocks, namely lignocellulose, require several stages of processing and poses a problem as the structure of the lignin surrounding the cellulose must be weakened before extraction which is a costly process.

“Extraction of sugars from non-edible feedstocks, namely lignocellulose, require several stages of processing and poses a problem as the structure of the lignin surrounding the cellulose must be weakened before extraction which is a costly process [125].”

• cites [125] 2017, A review on the production processes of renewable jet fuel, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Alterations in fuel composition from biofuels could have a significant impact on atmospheric chemistry.

“Alas, these alterations in fuel composition could have a significant impact on atmospheric chemistry.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

With edible feedstocks, sugar cane and corn, extraction of sugar is relatively simple and requires only hot water treatment.

“With edible feedstocks, sugar cane and corn, extraction of sugar is relatively simple and requires only hot water treatment.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

ATJ-SPK and HEFA-SPK fuels provide a synthetic method for producing aromatic hydrocarbons, whereas other mentioned fuel alternatives cannot.

“Although, ATJ-SPK and HEFA-SPK fuels do provide a synthetic method for producing aromatic hydrocarbons, whereas other fuel alternatives mentioned currently cannot.”

May combine two claims.

Algae feedstocks provide a cost-effective solution to biofuel growth due to minimal water and fertilizer requirements, but commercial-scale production is problematic.

“Algae feedstocks provide a cost-effective solution to biofuel growth, due to minimal water and fertilizer requirements, but, problems emerge with producing the feedstock on a commercial scale [151].”

• cites [151] Yaakob, 2015, Aviation biofuel from renewable resources: Routes, opportunities and challenges, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Alternative aviation fuel solutions reduce emissions but do not completely prevent them.

“Although the solutions reduce emissions, they do not completely prevent them.”

May combine two claims.

Increased demand for biofuels for aviation decarbonisation could lead to deforestation, affecting soil fertility and decreasing biodiversity in forested regions.

“Decarbonisation of the aviation industry relies heavily on biofuels; however, this increase in demand could lead to deforestation which affects soil fertility and can decrease biodiversity in forested regions [146].”

• cites [146] Wang, 1980, Greenhouse effects due to man-made perturbations of trace gases, J. Atmos. Sci. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.